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te purongo oranga tangata 2004
Ministry of Social Development.
Notes & References
In This Section
Bibliography
Appendix 1: Changes To The Social Report 2004
Appendix 2: Technical Details
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Appendix 2

Technical Details

People

Data sources: Population size and growth: Statistics New Zealand Resident Population Estimates; Census of Population and Dwellings; Resident Population Projections (2001-Base); Population Monitor; External Migration Information Release, INFOS data for time series data natural increase and net migration data.

Fertility: Statistics New Zealand : Population Monitor, Births, Additional Tables (Age-specific Fertility Rates by Single Year of Age for Māori, non-Māori, Total, Ethnic groups); international comparison from Demographic Trends 2003, Table 2.09.

Geographic and ethnic distribution of the population: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings.

Age and Sex Structure of the Population: Statistics New Zealand Resident Population Estimates.

Household structure: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings.

Families with Dependent Children: Table P3: Families with dependent children, by family type, 1976 to 2001; Statistics New Zealand, 1976, 1981, 1986, unpublished census data; 1991 Census: New Zealanders at Home, Tables 16, 17; 1996 Census, Families and Households, Tables 16, 21, 26; 2001 Census: Families and Households, Tables 13 and 24.

People with Disability: Statistics New Zealand, 2001. Disability Counts. Tables 1.01a, 1.02a.

Same-sex couples: Statistics New Zealand, 2001 Census, Families and Households, Tables 7, 11.

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Health

H1 Health expectancy

Definition/formulae: The total number of years a newborn can expect to live without any self-reported functional limitation requiring the assistance of another person or a complex assistive device.

Note:

  1. 2001 estimates have been revised following the official release of 2000-02 complete life tables in March 2004.
  2. Independent life expectancy estimates for 1996 have been revised slightly, reflecting changes to the smoothing method required for the 2001 data and the release of 2000-02 complete life tables.
  3. Māori and non-Māori rates are based on estimates for ages 0-85 years because of the small number of Māori aged over 85, and are referred to here as 'partial' independent life expectancies.

Limitations of data: The ability to monitor health expectancy on a regular basis depends on the availability of information about disability and levels of disability.

This measure of health expectancy (titled Independent Life Expectancy in previous editions of The Social Report) has inherent limitations as a population health indicator. An indicator that included all levels of disability - not just a single dependency threshold - would provide a more precise measure of health (ie a disability adjusted life expectancy). The social preferences (disability weights) needed to construct such an indicator are still under development in New Zealand.

Data sources: Ministry of Health, revised data.

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H2 Life expectancy

Definition/formulae: The expected number of years a hypothetical newborn male or female would live if they were subject throughout their lives to the age-specific mortality patterns prevailing over a three-year period centred on their birth year.

Note: Ethnic-specific estimates for the period 1980-82 to 1995-97 have been adjusted for undercounting in the ethnic mortality statistics using census ethnic definitions and were revised after the official release of the 2000-02 complete Life Tables in March 2004. The figures differ from those published by Statistics New Zealand for the same period and are not comparable with earlier estimates.

The analysis associating life expectancy with levels of deprivation is based on NZDep96, a small area index of deprivation based on a principal component analysis of nine socio-economic variables from the 1996 census. The index has been converted to a scale ranging from 1 to 10, where 1 represents the least deprived 10 percent of small areas, and 10 represents the most deprived 10 percent. The small areas are about the size of a census meshblock and have populations of at least 100 people.

Limitations of data: Available annually from abridged life tables for the total population only. Official Māori/non-Māori data is only available five-yearly from complete life tables based on three-year period around census years.

Data sources: Statistics New Zealand (2004) New Zealand Life Tables: 2000-2002, Table 1; Ministry of Health (ethnic-specific data for 1985-87, 1990-92); Tobias and Cheung (2003) Monitoring Health Inequalities: Life Expectancy and Small Area Deprivation in New Zealand, Table 3; OECD (2003c) OECD Health Data 2003, Table 1; Ministry of Health (1999) Our Health, Our Future: Hauora Pakari, Koiora Roa, The Health of New Zealanders 1999, Chapter 2.

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H3 Disability requiring assistance

Definition/formulae: The age-standardised disability requiring assistance prevalence rate per 100 population. Disability requiring assistance includes those with a functional and/or role limitation who require assistance from another person or from a complex assistive device over a period of at least six months. Those needing assistance intermittently are defined here as having a 'moderate' disability requiring assistance; those requiring continuous or daily assistance are defined as having a 'severe' disability requiring assistance. These definitions correspond to disability Levels 2 and 3 used by the Ministry of Health (1999).

The disability requiring assistance prevalence rate is age-standardised to the WHO world population, based on observed (not smoothed) age specific rates.

Limitations of data: Data is based on a sample survey and is therefore subject to sampling error. Rates of severe disability for Māori are based on small numbers and should be used with caution.

Data sources: Ministry of Health, unpublished data from the New Zealand Disability Surveys, 1996, 1997 and the 2001 New Zealand Disability Survey.

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H4 Suicide

Definition/formulae: The age-standardised rate of suicide deaths per 100,000 population.
Age-standardised to Segi's world population.

Note: The figures for 2000 and 2001 are provisional and may be revised.

Limitations of data: Because suicide is a relatively rare event in statistical terms, rates of suicide can vary markedly from year to year. Any interpretation of trends requires an examination of rates over several years. Deaths by suicide are subject to a coroner's inquiry and can only be officially deemed suicide once an inquest is complete. This means there can be a considerable delay in publication of the final statistics.

Data on the rates of suicide for geographical regions and cities may be of little value for reporting comparisons because of the low numbers, and hence highly variable suicide rates. For example, where populations are small, the rate of suicide can be greatly inflated by one or two deaths.

Data on attempted suicide is only available for those admitted to hospital as inpatients or day patients for self-inflicted injury. Those cared for in hospital but not admitted and those cared for by primary or community care services are not reported. Therefore, the actual rate of attempted suicide is likely to be much higher than reported in official statistics.

Comparability over time is affected by a change in population concept in 1991 (from de facto to resident), and the change in the ethnicity classification in 1995. Ethnic-specific mortality data is also subject to some uncertainty due to differences in collection across different providers.

A comparison of international trends in suicide is problematic due to differences in the methods used to classify suicide.

Data sources: Ministry of Health, New Zealand Health Information Service (unpublished tables); Ministry of Health (2004) Suicide Facts: Provisional 2001 Statistics (all ages); Beautrais (2000) Restricting Access to Means of Suicide in New Zealand : A Report Prepared for the Ministry of Health on Methods of Suicide in New Zealand. World Health Organisation [16 June 2004].

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H5 Prevalence of cigarette smoking

Definition/formulae: The proportion of the population aged 15 and over who ever smoke any ready-made cigarettes or roll-your-own tobacco cigarettes. Information on smoking prevalence was collected from quarterly surveys conducted by AC Nielson Ltd and reported by the Ministry of Health.

Ethnic rates are age-standardised using the WHO world population.

Limitations of data: The international comparison is affected by differences in the collection and classification of the data. The classification of ethnicity information changed from 1997 onwards. Therefore, ethnic-specific data before and after 1997 may not be comparable.

Data sources: Ministry of Health (2003b) Tobacco Facts 2003; Ministry of Health, OECD (2003c) OECD Health Data 2003, Frequently asked data, Table 19: Tobacco consumption: % of population who are daily smokers. Retrieved 11 May 2004. [16 June 2004].

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H6 Obesity

Definition/formulae: Obesity is defined as the accumulation of excess body fat to the extent that health is adversely affected (WHO 2000). It is measured using Body Mass Index (BMI) which is calculated by dividing weight (in kilograms) by height (in metres) squared. Adults with a BMI greater than 30 kg/m2 are classified as obese. In the 1997 National Nutrition Survey, the cut off for Māori and Pacific people was set slightly higher, at 32 kg/m2. For children, the measure is the proportion of 5-14-year-olds whose Body Mass Index (weight/height2) met the international definition of obesity established by Cole, et al (2000) in the 2002 National Children's Nutrition Survey. The definition adapts the widely used cut-off point for adults (30kg/m2) to produce age and sex specific cut-offs for children and youth aged 2-18 years.

Information on obesity is based on the 1997 National Nutrition survey, the 2002 National Children's Nutrition Survey and the 1989-90 Life in New Zealand (LINZ) Study.

Limitations of data: The cut off level is arbitrary and does not necessarily correspond to levels of health risk. There is some debate about whether a separate cut off for Māori and Pacific people is warranted. 1989-90 data for Māori should be viewed with caution as the number of Māori in the survey was small.

Data sources: Ministry of Health (2002a) An Indication of New Zealanders' Health; Ministry of Health (1999d) NZ Food: NZ People; OECD (2004a) Health at a Glance: OECD Indicators 2003, Chart 8. Retrieved 14 May 2004 from http://www.oecd.org/searchResult/0,2665,en_2649_201185_1_1_1_1_1,00.html; Ministry of Health (2003c) NZ Food, NZ Children: Key results of the 2002 National Children's Nutrition Survey; Ministry of Health, obesity data from the 1989-90 Life in New Zealand (LINZ) Study and the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. Russell, D and Wilson, N (1991) Life in New Zealand, Volume 1, Executive Overview, Table V.1, pp118-119.

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Knowledge and Skills

K1 Participation in early childhood education

Definition: The number of children aged three and four years enrolled in early childhood education programmes as a proportion of the estimated population aged three and four years. Early childhood education (ECE) programmes include: licensed ECE services (kindergartens, playcentres, education and care services, home-based services, casual education and care (no regular roll), correspondence school and te kōhanga reo); and licence-exempt ECE services (early childhood development funded playgroups, Pacific people early childhood groups, and playcentres); and licence-exempt kohanga reo.

Limitations of data: Rates of participation are only 'apparent' because children may be enrolled in more than one ECE centre. The rates may therefore be inflated. The measure does not provide information on the length of participation or the quality of the programmes, both of which are relevant to positive educational outcomes.

Data sources: Ministry of Education (various years) Education Statistics of New Zealand ; Education Statistics News Sheet, v 10, no 1, March 2001; customised tables; OECD (2003a) Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, 2003 edition, Table C1.2.

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K2 School leavers with higher qualifications

Definition: The number of students leaving school with Sixth Form Certificate in at least one subject or a higher qualification, as a proportion of the total number of school leavers during the year. Higher qualifications include: Sixth Form Certificate in at least one subject (irrespective of grade awarded); National Certificate Level 2 (or 12 or more credits at Level 2 or above); Higher School Certificate (or 12-39 credits at Level 3 or above); Entrance Qualification (or 40 or more credits at Level 3 or above); University Bursary, A or B grade (or National Certificate Level 3); University Scholarship (up to 1989).

Limitations of data: The available data on school leavers' highest qualifications does not allow a breakdown by the number of subjects passed or the grades achieved. Policy changes relating to qualifications affect comparability over time.

Data source: Ministry of Education (various years) Education Statistics of New Zealand; Ministry of Education website. http://www.minedu.govt.nz/SchoolLeaverStatistics [16 June 2004].

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K3 Educational attainment of the adult population

Definition: The proportion of adults aged 25-64 years with educational attainment of at least upper secondary school level, defined in the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 97) as Level 3 and above.

ISCED 3 includes local polytechnic certificate or diploma, trade certificate or advanced trade certificate, University Bursary, Scholarship, Higher School Certificate, Higher Leaving Certificate, Sixth Form Certificate, University Entrance in one or more subjects, School Certificate in one or more subjects, other school qualification.

ISCED 4 includes technician's certificate, New Zealand Certificate or diploma.

ISCED 5B includes university certificate or diploma, teacher's certificate or diploma, nursing certificate or diploma, other tertiary qualification.

ISCED 5A/6 includes post-graduate degree, certificate or diploma, Bachelor's degree.

Limitations of data: There are substantial differences in the typical duration of ISCED 3 programmes between countries, ranging from two to five years of secondary schooling.

Data sources: Statistics New Zealand, Household Labour Force Survey; OECD (2002c) Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, 2002 edition, Tables A1.2, A2.3.

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K4 Adult literacy skills in English

Definition: Respondents in the International Adult Literacy Survey were asked to carry out various everyday tasks. 'Prose literacy' refers to the knowledge and skills required to use information from texts, such as editorials, news stories, poems and fiction; 'document literacy' refers to the knowledge and skills required to locate and use information contained in various formats such as job applications, payroll forms, transportation timetables, maps, tables and graphics; and 'quantitative literacy' refers to the knowledge and skills required to apply arithmetic operations such as balancing a cheque book, completing an order form or determining the amount of interest on a loan. The achievement attained on each of the literacy domains is grouped into one of five 'skill levels'. Level 1 represented the lowest ability range and level 5 the highest. Level 3 is considered a suitable minimum for coping with the demands of everyday life and work in a complex, advanced society. It denotes roughly the skill level required for successful secondary school completion and college entry. Like higher levels, it requires the ability to integrate several sources of information and solve more complex problems.

Limitations of data: The first international adult literacy survey was conducted in 1994-95; the New Zealand survey took place in 1996.

Data sources: Ministry of Education (2001b) More Than Words: The New Zealand Adult Literacy Strategy; OECD (2000c) Literacy in the Information Age: Final Report of the Adult Literacy Survey, p137. Retrieved June 2004 from http://www1.oecd.org/publications/e-book/8100051e.pdf

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K5 Participation in tertiary education

Definition: Participation in tertiary education is calculated by: the number of students who are enrolled in tertiary education institutions and studying for a New Zealand registered qualification as at 31 July each year; divided by the population aged 15 and over. Private tertiary institutions are included from 1997 onwards.

Te wānanga o Aotearoa is a public tertiary institution that provides programmes with an emphasis on the application of knowledge regarding auhuatanga Māori (Māori tradition) according to tikanga Māori (Māori custom). A settlement of a Treaty of Waitangi claim was reached with Te wānanga o Aotearoa in November 2001. This settlement enabled the wānanga to expand and establish new campuses around the country.

The Māori and non-Māori total tertiary participation rates in this section have been age-standardised to the estimated total resident population aged 15 and over, as at 30 June 2003.

Limitations of data: Changes in the number of institutions, the status of institutions, and the types of courses offered affect comparisons over time.

Data sources: Ministry of Education website, Tertiary Statistics [16 June 2004]; Ministry of Education (2002) Participation in Tertiary Education, August 2002; Education Statistics of New Zealand for 2001; OECD (2003a) Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, 2003, Table C2.1.

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Paid Work

PW1 Unemployment

Definition: The proportion of labour force (aged 15 and over) that is unemployed. The labour force is the sum of those defined as employed and those defined as unemployed. Hence the unemployment rate is defined as unemployed/(employed and unemployed). The unemployed are defined in the Household Labour Force Survey as those who are without a paid job (or unpaid work in a relative's business) and who have actively sought work in four weeks before the survey and are available to take work. 'Actively seeking' includes any actions such as contacting an employer, asking friends and relatives, contacting an employment agency or the Department of Work and Income but excludes those who have only checked newspaper advertisements. The employed are those who worked for pay or profit for one hour or more in the week before the survey or who worked unpaid in a relative's business or who have a job but did not work that week because of leave, sickness or industrial disputes.

Standardised unemployment rates used for international comparison are seasonally adjusted rates.

Limitations of data: Data is based on a sample survey and is therefore subject to sampling error. The definition of the unemployed excludes some people who regard themselves as unemployed, including the 'discouraged unemployed' - those not meeting the 'actively seeking work' criterion. This group is classified in the 'Not in the Labour Force' category. The unemployment rate also excludes those who have part-time employment but are seeking to work more hours.

Data sources: OECD (2003b) OECD Employment Outlook, 2003, Statistical Annex, Table A, p299; OECD (2004b) Main Economic Indicators, p16: Standardised Unemployment Rates. Retrieved 14 May from http://www.oecd.org/document/15/0,2340,en_2825_293564_1873295_1_1_1_1,00.html#SUR

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PW2 Employment

Definition: The proportion of the population aged 15-64 that is employed for at least one hour per week. See above for definition of the employed. The definition used here relates to the population aged 15-64, rather than to those aged 15 and over, because otherwise results are skewed by differences in the proportions of the sub-populations over 65, particularly when comparing males with females and comparing different ethnic groups.

Limitations of data: As above, data is subject to sampling error. The definition of employment includes those working one hour or more per week, so will include some people who are likely to regard their status as closer to unemployment than to being employed. For example people on the unemployment benefit and searching for work but working a few hours per week will be counted as employed.

Data sources: OECD (2003b) OECD Employment Outlook, 2003, Statistical Annex, Table G, p325; OECD (2003b) OECD Employment Outlook, 2003, Statistical Annex, Table B, pp300-303.

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PW3 Earnings from wage and salary jobs

Definition/formulae: Average hourly earnings from all wage and salary jobs for employees earning income from wage and salary jobs as measured by the New Zealand Income Survey, an annual supplement to the Household Labour Force Survey.

Limitations of data: The final dataset consists of 29,000 valid person records including 4,000 imputed person records. Hourly earnings relate to the number of hours usually worked and the usual income rather than the number of hours actually worked and the actual income. Proxy interviewing may be used to collect data on income under certain circumstances. Estimates from sample surveys are subject to error.

Data source: Statistics New Zealand (2003c), New Zealand Income Survey, Hot off the Press June 1997 Table 8, June 1998 to June 2003 Table 10 Unpublished data from New Zealand Income Survey, June 2003.

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PW4 Workplace injury claims

Definition: The number of work-related accident claims reported to the Accident Compensation Corporation per 1,000 full-time equivalent employees (one part-time employee = 0.5 full-time employee).

Limitations of data: The data does not include workplace accidents where no claim was made with an insurer. In some cases there are also delays between the occurrence of the accident, the claim being reported to the insurer and the insurer reporting the claim to the ACC.

Information on workplace injuries for 2001/2002 is based on a new set of indicators developed by Statistics New Zealand. These figures have been backdated to 2000/2001 but are not directly comparable with previous figures on workplace injuries.

Data sources: Statistics New Zealand (2003b) Injury Statistics 2001/2002. Statistics New Zealand : Wellington. Full-time equivalent employee data is as estimated by the Statistics New Zealand 1986-2002 Household Labour Force Survey.

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PW5 Satisfaction with work/life balance

Definition/formulae: The proportion of people who are satisfied with their work/life balance according to the Social Wellbeing Survey 2004. Responses range from 'very satisfied' through to 'very dissatisfied'.

Limitations of data: The Social Wellbeing Survey is an experimental survey commissioned by the Ministry of Social Development to collect information on subjective elements of wellbeing. In particular, the relatively small sample size for the survey (n=1127) means that there is a relatively high standard error around population estimates for small groups. Subjective measures of wellbeing reflect people's perceptions of their own situation which may differ from their objective status.

Data source: Ministry of Social Development, Social Wellbeing Survey 2004.

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Economic standard of living

EC1 Market income per person

Definition/formulae: Real GNDI measures the real purchasing power of the net income of New Zealand residents from both domestic and overseas sources after taking account of income redistribution resulting from international transfers. GNDI is GNI (previously called GNP) plus net international transfers. Real GDP per person (as used in the OECD comparisons) is Gross National Expenditure plus exports minus imports.

Derivation of RGNDI: In the published tables, RGNDI is calculated as follows:
Constant price gross domestic product (production-based measure) plus constant price trading gain/loss plus constant price total net income and transfers. Constant price trading gain/loss is defined as current price exports divided by the imports implicit price index less constant price exports. Constant price total net income and transfers equals investment income credits less investment income debits plus transfers credits less transfers debits, all divided by the imports implicit price index.

Limitations of data: Major limitations to the use of RGNDI as an indicator of wellbeing include its failure to include non-marketed (and, therefore, non-priced) activities (barring the exception of imputed rentals). RGNDI provides no information on income distribution considerations. Evidence suggests monetary measures have a very weak cross-sectional and limited time series correlation with self-assessed measures of wellbeing. Use of real GDP for OECD comparisons is likely to over-state New Zealand's relative position because of New Zealand's relatively high per capita net external debt.

Data sources: Statistics New Zealand, Real GNDI per capita, INFOS series SNBA.SRNDIPCO; OECD real GDP data is from OECD Annual National Accounts - v 1, Comparative Tables; Statistics New Zealand (2001c) Measuring Unpaid Work in New Zealand 1999. Table 1, p 15.

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EC2 Income inequality

Definition/formulae: The ratio of the 80th percentile of disposable household income to the 20th percentile of disposable household income. This indicator is based on 'actual' household income so does not take into account household size and composition. For international comparison purposes we have compared GINI co-efficients.

Limitations of Data: International comparisons have been made with data from the mid 1990s.

Data source: Household Economic Survey. Access to the data used in this study was provided by Statistics New Zealand under conditions designed to give effect to the confidentiality provisions of the Statistics Act 1975. The results presented in this study are the work of the Ministry of Social Policy/Ministry of Social Development. Forster M and Pearson M (2002)/1 Income Distribution and Poverty in the OECD Area: Trends and Driving Forces OECD Economic Studies, No 34. p.38 and Statistics New Zealand (1999) Income Distribution in New Zealand - Key Statistics.

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EC3 Population with low incomes

Definition/formulae: The measures have been constructed using economic family units as the base unit of analysis. An economic family is operationally defined as:

Financially independent single adult (not in a de jure or 'social' marriage, not caring for dependent children).

Sole-parent family - ie financially independent single adult (not in a de jure or 'social' marriage) caring for one or more dependent children.

Couple (in a de jure or 'social' marriage, not caring for dependent children).

Two-parent family - ie couple (in a de jure or 'social' marriage) caring for one or more dependent children.
All young adults are considered financially independent at 18 years of age; 16 and 17-year-olds are also considered financially independent if receiving a benefit in their own right or employed for 30 hours or more per week.

Conceptually, an economic family is a group of co-resident people whose financial affairs are common or have been merged to the extent that the people are substantially interdependent (with an individual not part of such a group being considered to constitute an economic family in its minimal form).

Housing costs have been apportioned to economic family units. Account was taken of the housing costs of the economic family unit by subtracting its housing cost from its after-tax income. The resulting amounts were inflation adjusted using the CPI for all groups excluding housing.

Adjustment for family size was made by means of a per capita equivalisation process based on the 1988 Revised Jensen Equivalence Scale. The resulting amount - Housing-adjusted Equivalised Disposable Income (HEDY) - can be regarded as an income-based proxy measure of standard of living. The HEDY is the metric on which the low thresholds are specified.

Changes over the decade 1988 to 1998 have been tracked in terms of the proportion of economic families with HEDY values below 40 percent, 50 percent and 60 percent of the median HEDY in 1998. This definition means that the measures are based on constant-value benchmarks. The three measures are referred to as the 40 percent line, the 50 percent line and the 60 percent line. For the purpose of this analysis the self-employed have been included.

Note: While technical analysis done to date indicates that the measurement approach is well-grounded and robust, future work may point to the use of other thresholds as more informative for social monitoring.

The methodology used to calculate the figures used in the international comparison section follows that used by the OECD: the income concept is equivalised household disposable income; the equivalence scale is the square root scale (ie equivalence scale elasticity = 0.5); equivalent household income is attributed to all individuals in the household; individuals are ranked by their attributed equivalent disposable income to obtain the median for that year; the thresholds are set at 60% of this (contemporary) median.

Limitations of data: The HEDY metric is an imperfect indicator of living standards, which is influenced by factors other than income and housing cost. People with the same income level can have greatly different standards of living as a result of their lifecycle stage (youth, middle age, older people), ownership of assets, the extent to which they receive assistance from others, and the extent to which they have atypical expenditure commitments (eg unusually high medical costs, debt repayments, transport costs, electricity costs, etc). People who experience a lengthy period of substantial restriction are likely to have different life outcomes to those who experience only a transient episode.

Family ethnicity is defined in this indicator by the presence of an adult of a particular ethnic group. The figures for families defined in this way are not mutually exclusive.

Housing costs is the sum of annualised accommodation expenditure codes (includes mortgage payments (principal and interest), payments to local authorities, property rent, rent of private dwelling, boarding house, student accommodation not paid with formal fees). In this indicator the accommodation supplement is counted as income.

Note that the weightings used for the Household Economic Survey were revised for all years in 2001. Some figures in this section may therefore differ from those presented in the Social Report 2001.

Data sources: Derived from the Household Economic Survey by the Ministry of Social Policy/Ministry of Social Development and OECD (2000d) Trends and Driving Factors in Income Distribution and Poverty in the OECD Area, DEELSA/ELSA/WD p 94.

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EC4 Population with low living standards

Definition/formulae: The Economic Living Standard Index (ELSI) is a direct measure of material standard of living, based on information on the extent to which respondents economise on consumption because of cost; have ownership restrictions because of cost; have social participation restrictions because of cost; people's own rating of their standard of living; and people's rating of the adequacy of their incomes to meet day to day needs. The ELSI scale has seven reporting levels: level 1 'very restricted', level 2 'restricted', level 3 'somewhat restricted', level 4 'fairly comfortable', level 5 'comfortable', level 6 'good', level 7 'very good' living standards. Lower living standards encompass the bottom three categories (levels 1-3) of the ELSI scale.

Limitations of data: Measures only material wellbeing.

Data source: New Zealand Living Standards 2000, Ministry of Social Development (2003b), Ministry of Social Development: Wellington.

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EC5 Housing affordability

Definition/formulae: Proportion of all households with housing cost outgoings-to-income ratio greater than 30 percent.

Household incomes have been equivalised using the 1988 Revised Jensen Equivalence Scale.

Housing costs is the sum of annualised accommodation expenditure codes (includes mortgage payments (principal and interest), payments to local authorities, property rent, rent of private dwelling, boarding house, student accommodation not paid with formal fees). In this indicator the accommodation supplement is counted as income.

Limitations of data: Measures of housing affordability do not shed light on issues of housing quality, suitability or sustainability, nor do they explain why affordability problems may exist, or the extent to which inadequate housing is occupied to avoid affordability problems. Furthermore, marginally-housed families are often hidden from official statistics and therefore not counted among those with an affordability problem.

Household ethnicity is defined in this indicator by the presence of an adult of a particular ethnic group. The figures for households defined in this way are not mutually exclusive.

Data source: Derived from the Household Economic Survey by the Ministry of Social Policy.

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EC6 Household crowding

Definition/formulae: The Canadian National Occupancy standard sets the bedroom requirements of a household according to the following compositional criteria:

  • There should be no more than two people per bedroom
  • Parents or couples share a bedroom
  • Children under five years, either of same or opposite sex, may reasonably share a bedroom
  • Children under 18 years of the same sex may reasonably share a bedroom
  • A child aged five to 17 years should not share a bedroom with one under five of the opposite sex
  • Single adults 18 years and over and any unpaired children require a separate bedroom.

Limitations of data: There is no contemporary official statistic or index of household crowding in New Zealand. There are many frameworks or models used in many countries for analysing the incidence of crowding. It is unlikely that any single measure of crowding could adequately summarise such a complex and multi-faceted issue as crowding.

There is no definitive evidence that crowding leads to negative social outcomes. There are just associations between living in crowded circumstances and negative outcomes. The mechanisms by which these outcomes result are not clear.

The Canadian crowding index is not an objective index of crowding. The extent to which household members will perceive themselves as living in crowded circumstances is dependent on many factors including social and cultural expectations. Furthermore, it cannot be assumed that households requiring two or more additional bedrooms (based on the Canadian index) will suffer negative social outcomes.

The Canadian crowding index is used here as it is both sensitive to household size and composition. The measure sets a bedroom requirement for households based on precise criteria. It is useful not only for ascertaining crowding levels but also to identify the extent of bedroom under-utilisation.

Data sources: Statistics New Zealand (1999e) New Zealand Now - Housing, pp 56-63; Ministry of Social Policy (2001) Definitions of Crowding and the Effects of Crowding on Health: A Literature Review, Research Series Report 1, p 4; Statistics New Zealand, unpublished data from the 2001 census.

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Civil, political and human rights

CP1 Voter turnout

Definition/formulae: The total number of votes cast is divided by the estimated number of people who would have been eligible to vote (voting age population) on election day, and expressed as a percentage. To be eligible to vote, a person must be at least 18 years old and meet residential and certain other criteria.

Limitations of data: The voting age population is based on population estimates that are subject to revision. The 1984 figure is based on the estimated de facto population aged 18 and over, as at 30 June 1984.

Data source: Electoral Commission (2002) The New Zealand Electoral Compendium, 3rd edition; Statistics New Zealand, estimated de facto population by age; Department of Internal Affairs (2003) Local Authority Election Statistics 2001; International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

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CP2 Representation of women in government

Definition/formulae: The proportion of elected members of parliament and local government bodies who are women.

Data source: Electoral Commission (2002) The New Zealand Electoral Compendium, 3rd edition; Department of Internal Affairs (2003) Local Authority Election Statistics 2001; International Parliamentary Union Women in National Parliaments, Situation as at 30 April 2004, http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm

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CP3 Perceived discrimination

Definition/formulae: The proportion of people aged 18 and over who perceived selected groups as being the targets of discrimination (ie subject to some discrimination or a great deal of discrimination).

Limitations of data: Surveys on perceived discrimination do not measure actual levels of discrimination against groups.

The margin of error for a 50 percent figure at the '95 percent confidence level' is 3.6 percent.

Data sources: Human Rights Commission Omnibus Results (January 2004).

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CP4 Absence of corruption

Definition/formulae: The degree of corruption perceived to exist within New Zealand according to business people, academics and risk analysts. Corruption is defined as the 'abuse of public office for private gain'. Results are taken from Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index which ranked 133 countries in 2003, in terms of how corrupt they are perceived to be. Scores ranged between 10 (highly clean) and 0 (highly corrupt). The Corruption Perceptions Index is a poll of polls, produced yearly since 1995, using 17 different surveys and polls from 13 independent institutions.

Limitations of data: The Corruption Perceptions Index is a subjective measure and must be seen as a snapshot of the views of key decision-makers. There is no hard, empirical data concerning levels of corruption. The only method of gathering comparative data is to take a subjective perspective which builds on the experience and views of those who directly see the effects and reality of corruption. The Index is a relative measure: New Zealand's score depends not only on perceptions of corruption in New Zealand, but also on perceptions of corruption in the other countries surveyed.

Data source: Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 1995-2003.

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Culture and identity

CI1 Local content programming on New Zealand television

Definition/formulae: The hours of local content broadcast on TV One, TV2, and TV3 in prime time, expressed as a percentage of the total prime time schedule. TV3 commenced in November 1989. New Zealand programming includes first runs and repeats across all three channels.

Limitations of data: The number of local content hours broadcast on other free-to-air or pay channels is not included in the data presented here.

Data source: New Zealand on Air (2004) Local Content, New Zealand Television, 2003.

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CI2 Māori language speakers

Definition/formulae: Māori language speakers as a proportion of the Māori ethnic group. Māori language speakers are defined as those able to hold a conversation about a lot of everyday things in Māori.

Limitations of data: The data is reliant on self-reporting and does not measure the actual level of fluency in the population. More detailed information on the level of fluency among Māori language speakers is available from a nationwide survey undertaken in 1995. This data is not directly comparable with the census data because different definitions were used.

Data sources: Statistics New Zealand (2002b) New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings: Māori; Te Puni Kkiri (2001b) Provisional results of the 2001 Survey of the Health of the Māori Language.

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CI3 Language retention

Definition/formulae: The proportion of people who can speak the 'first language' (excluding English) of their ethnic group, for ethnic groups (other than Māori) with an established resident population in New Zealand, as recorded in the 2001 Population Census. Ability to speak a language is defined as being able to hold an everyday conversation in that language. 'First language' refers to an indigenous language associated with a given ethnicity rather than the first language of an individual.

Several criteria were used to identify ethnic groups with an established resident population in New Zealand. These included total population size, years since the group's arrival in New Zealand and the age distribution and birthplace (overseas and within New Zealand ) of group members. These variables provide a measure of the influence of time and of demographic characteristics of the groups. Each variable was applied independently to a large list of ethnic groups from which 15 were selected under the broad categories of Pacific peoples, Asian and European. To be selected, a group needed to have a New Zealand resident population of over 2,000 people; a broad age distribution to investigate the impact of age on language retention; and sufficient numbers born in New Zealand in order to make meaningful comparisons with overseas-born residents.

Limitations of data: While a direct link can usually be made between a language and an ethnic group, this is not always the case. Some ethnicities are associated with several languages and one language can span several ethnicities. While English is an official language of some groups selected in these tables, the 2001 Census does not distinguish between different varieties of the English language. English has therefore been excluded as a first language within these tables. Because both the ethnic group and language spoken census variables allow more than one response, their may be some individuals who appear in more than one ethnic group category.

Data source: Statistics New Zealand, 2001 Census, unpublished data (from forthcoming report on language retention).

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Leisure and recreation

L1 Subjective satisfaction with leisure

Definition/formulae: People's levels of subjective satisfaction with their available leisure time according to the Social Wellbeing Survey 2004. Responses range from 'very satisfied' through to 'very dissatisfied'.

Limitations of data: The Social Wellbeing Survey is an experimental survey commissioned by MSD to collect information on subjective elements of wellbeing. In particular, the relatively small sample size for the survey (n=1127) means that there is a relatively high standard error around population estimates for small groups. Subjective measures of wellbeing reflect people's perceptions of their own situation which may differ from their objective status.

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L2 Participation in sport and active leisure

Definition/formulae: The proportion of adults (18 years and over) and young people (5-17 years) who were physically active as defined by the Sport and Physical Activity Surveys of 1997/98, 1998/1999 and 2000/2001.

Being 'physically active' means being either 'relatively active' or 'highly active'. Relatively active means that the respondent took part in at least 2.5 hours, but less than 5 hours of sport/leisure-time physical activity in the 7 days before the interview. Highly active means that the respondent took part in 5 hours or more of sport/leisure-time physical activity in the 7 days prior to interview.

Limitations of data: Information on the activity of children was collected from parents with help from the children if they were present. This approach relied on the parents being well informed about their children's involvement in sport and leisure-time physical activity.

Data source: Sport and Recreation New Zealand (2003a) SPARC Facts Series (1997-2001), retrieved 7 April 2004 from http://www.sparc.org.nz/research/sparcfacts-3.php
Sport and Recreation New Zealand (2003b) SPARC Trends: Trends in Participation in Sport and Active Leisure 1997-2001, retrieved 7 April 2004 from http://www.sparc.org.nz/research/pdfs/Trends_Report.pdf

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L3 Participation in cultural and arts activities

Definition/formulae: The proportion of the population aged 15 and over who experienced a cultural activity as measured in the 2002 Cultural Experiences Survey. Respondents were asked to report on activities they experienced over either a 12 month period (for goods and services accessed or experienced relatively infrequently) or a four week recall period (for activities experienced on a more regular basis). The survey was undertaken as a supplement to the March 2002 quarter Household Labour Force Survey (HLFS).

Limitations of data: This was an hoc survey, and is not comparable with the indicator in The Social Report 2001. The focus of this survey was on experience/consumption; it did not include participation such as acting or performing.

Data sources: Statistics New Zealand (2002a) 2002 Cultural Experiences Survey.

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Physical environment

EN1 Air quality

Definition/formulae: The level of ambient concentrations of PM10 averaged annually are categorised for four major urban centres in New Zealand. These levels are compared with the government's PM10 guideline value of 20 mg/m3 (20 micrograms per cubic meter) averaged annually. PM10 is particulate matter that is less than 10 microns in diameter.

Limitations of data: Ambient air quality sites where data on PM10 levels are publicly available are few in number and tend to represent urban areas where 'worst case' PM10 concentration levels are to be found. The monitoring sites are mainly located in residential areas where air pollution problems are anticipated or have already been confirmed. The sites do not therefore always represent the pollution levels that will be experienced over an entire town or city. The data, being so location-specific, cannot be compared with an OECD median.

Data source: Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health (2002) Ambient Air Quality Guidelines - 2002 Update. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.

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EN2 Drinking water quality

Definition/formulae: The Drinking-water Standards for New Zealand (DWSNZ) 1995 requires that all water leaving the treatment plant must be free of both faecal coliform bacteria (including E. Coli) and Cryptosporidium. Additionally, adequate monitoring and the use of a registered laboratory are required to demonstrate full compliance with this standard. The figures shown give the percentage of the population who are served by community water supplies and whose water supplies comply with the 1995 DWSNZ in respect of E. Coli and Cryptosporidium.

Limitations of data: Drinking water rated not fully compliant may be the result of failing one of three of the microbiological criteria, the use of a non-registered laboratory, or inadequate monitoring, rather than being actually contaminated. Compliance with the DWSNZ standards regarding Cryptosporidium is measured at the treatment plant rather than at the tap, so there is a possibility of contamination between the treatment plant and the point of consumption.

Data source: Ministry of Health (2002b) Annual Review of the Microbiological Quality of Drinking-water in New Zealand (2001).

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Safety

SS1 Child abuse and neglect

Definition/formulae: The number of children who were assessed as abused (physically, emotionally, sexually) or neglected, following a notification to the Department of Child, Youth and Family Services as a proportion (per 1,000) of all children under 17 years of age.

Limitations of data: There is currently no single measure that can adequately establish the prevalence of child abuse in the community, or establish trends in child abuse over time. Mortality rates capture only the most extreme form of abuse; hospitalisation data on injuries sustained as a result of child abuse are subject to misclassification and reflect changes in hospital admission procedures. Notifications of child abuse and neglect, and hence the number of children assessed as abused, can be affected by the level of resources made available, by administrative changes, and by changes in the likelihood of people reporting suspected abuse.

Data sources: Ministry of Health, New Zealand Health Information Service; Ministry of Social Development (SWIS and CYRAS data); Statistics New Zealand, estimated resident population, mean for the year ended 30 June.

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SS2 Criminal victimisation

Definition/formulae: The number of individuals who have been the victims of one or more incidents of criminal offending over the 2000 year as a proportion of the population aged 15 and over, as measured by the 2001 National Survey of Crime Victims. The survey includes all behaviour reported by the respondents which falls within the legal definition of criminal offending. This is a broader measure than that collected from police records.

Criminal victimisation prevalence rates for 1995 have been revised slightly.

Limitations of data: The survey includes a wide range of behaviour with varying degrees of seriousness but excludes offences such as shoplifting and tax evasion as well as victimless crimes such as drug abuse. Many of the reported behaviours may not be regarded as a 'crime' by the victims and they may not regard the incident as requiring police intervention.

Differences in the method of collection and in the questionnaire may affect the comparability of the results from the 2001 and 1996 surveys.

The 2001 survey had a response rate of 62 percent and the 1996 survey had a response rate of 57 percent. The response rates for Māori and Pacific peoples were much lower. The differences in the response rates between the surveys, and the low response rates among Māori and Pacific peoples, may have impacted on both the validity of comparisons between the two surveys and on the reliability of the findings of the 2001 survey, especially with respect to Māori and Pacific peoples.

Previous studies suggest that sexual offending and domestic abuse are substantially under-reported in criminal victimisation surveys. The results, therefore, should be treated with some caution.

Data sources: Morris et al (2003) New Zealand National Survey of Crime Victims 2001. Ministry of Justice, customised tables.

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SS3 Perceptions of safety

Definition/formulae: The proportion of people who reported they felt unsafe walking alone in their neighbourhood at night, as measured by the 2001 National Survey of Crime Victims. People who said they did not walk alone at night were asked how they thought they would feel.

Limitations of data: People's subjective perceptions about safety are not always linked to the actual risk of becoming a crime victim.

Data sources: Morris et al (2003) New Zealand National Survey of Crime Victims 2001. Ministry of Justice.

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SS4 Road casualties

Definition/formulae: Number of deaths caused by motor vehicles per 100,000 population. Number of injured persons resulting from motor vehicle crashes as reported to the police, per 100,000 population. Pedestrians or cyclists killed or injured by motor vehicles are included.

Limitations of data: The collection of ethnicity data changed during 1995 for both mortality and hospitalisation data. For mortality data, the basis of ethnicity has changed from a biological concept to a concept of self-identification; in mid-1995 hospitalisation data recorded multiple ethnic groups, whereas previously only one ethnic group could be recorded. Consequently, comparison of 1996 ethnic-specific data with previous years is misleading: 1996 is the start of a new time series for ethnic-specific data.

Data sources: Land Transport Safety Authority; New Zealand Health Information Service; New Zealand Travel Surveys. The Land Transport Safety Authority derives its data from two main sources: injury data from the Traffic Crash Reports completed by police officers who attend the fatal and injury crashes; and mortality and hospitalisation data from the New Zealand Health Information Service. The LTSA does not report on ethnic-specific rates of death or hospitalisation; this data comes directly from NZHIS. The New Zealand Travel Survey 1997/98 was based on a sample of approximately 14,000 people and the survey report compared results from a similar survey conducted in 1989/90. Source: International Road Traffic and Accident Database (OECD). http://www.bast.de/htdocs/fachthemen/irtad/english/we2.html

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Social connectedness

SC1 Telephone and Internet access in the home

Definition/formulae: The proportion of the population with telephone and internet access in the home, as measured by the 2000 Living Standards Surveys.

The data is derived from responses to two Ministry of Social Policy surveys of living standards conducted in 2000, one of 3,060 older people (65+ years) and the other of 3,682 working age adults (18-64 years). Both surveys involved face-to-face interviews with nationwide representative samples.

For further details, see notes for EC4 Population with low living standards.

Data source: Statistics New Zealand 2001 Census of Population and Dwellings; Ministry of Social Development (2003) New Zealand Living Standards Surveys 2000.

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SC2 Participation in family/whanau activities and regular contact with family/friends

Definition/formulae: The proportion of the population who had had family or friends over for a meal at least once a month, and the proportion who had participated in family (whānau) activities, as measured by the 2000 Living Standards Surveys. Family or whānau activities were not specified in the surveys; respondents interpreted them in their own ways.

The data is derived from responses to two Ministry of Social Policy surveys of living standards conducted in 2000, one of 3,060 older people (65+ years) and the other of 3,682 working-age adults (18-64 years). Both surveys involved face-to-face interviews with nationwide representative samples.

Data source: Ministry of Social Development (2003) New Zealand Living Standards Surveys 2000.

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SC3 Trust in others

Definition/formulae: The proportion of the population who report that people can almost always or usually be trusted, as reported in the Social Wellbeing Survey 2004. Responses range from those who believe that others can 'almost always or usually be trusted', compared with people who believe that 'you usually or almost always can't be too careful in dealing with people'.

Limitations of data: The Social Wellbeing Survey is an experimental survey commissioned by the Ministry of Social Development to collect information on subjective elements of wellbeing. In particular, the relatively small sample size for the survey (n=1127) means that there is a relatively high standard error around population estimates for small groups. Subjective measures of wellbeing reflect people's perceptions of their own situation which may differ from their objective status.

Data source: Ministry of Social Development, Social Wellbeing Survey, 2004.

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SC 4 Loneliness

Definition/formulae: The proportion of the population who are lonely all of the time, often, or some of the time, in the Social Wellbeing Survey 2004. Responses range from 'never lonely' to 'always lonely'.

Limitations of data: The Social Wellbeing Survey is an experimental survey commissioned by the Ministry of Social Development to collect information on subjective elements of wellbeing. In particular, the relatively small sample size for the survey (n=1127) means that there is a relatively high standard error around population estimates for small groups. Subjective measures of wellbeing reflect people's perceptions of their own situation which may differ from their objective status.

Data source: Ministry of Social Development, Social Wellbeing Survey 2004.

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SC5 Contact between young people and their parents

Definition/formulae: The percentage of secondary school students who reported in 2001 that most weeks they got enough time to spend with Mum and/or Dad (or someone who acts as Mum and/or Dad).

Limitations of data: Estimates from sample surveys are subject to error. The achieved sample size for the Youth2000 survey was 9,699 students, 4 percent of the total 2001 New Zealand secondary school roll.

Data source: Adolescent Health Research Group (2003b) New Zealand Youth: A Profile of their Health and Wellbeing. Auckland: University of Auckland. Table on p. 46.
Adolescent Health Research Group (2003a). New Zealand Youth: A Profile of their Health and Wellbeing: Regional reports (2003)

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