Cultural Identity

Desired Outcomes

New Zealanders share a strong national identity, have a sense of belonging, and value cultural diversity. Maori, European/Pakeha, Pacific people, and other groups and communities are able to pass different cultural traditions on to future generations. Maori culture is valued and protected.

Introduction

'Culture' refers to the customs, practices, languages, values and world views that define social groups such as those based on ethnicity, region, or common interests. Cultural identity is important for people's sense of self and how they relate to others. A strong cultural identity can contribute to people's overall wellbeing.

Cultural identity is not exclusive. People may identify themselves as New Zealanders in some circumstances and as part of a particular culture - Maori, Chinese or Scottish, for example - in other circumstances. They may also identify with more than one culture.

The desired outcomes recognise it is important for people to feel a sense of national identity and also to be able to belong to particular social or ethnic groups. They recognise New Zealand as a multicultural society, while also acknowledging that Maori culture has a unique place. Under the Treaty of Waitangi, the Crown has an obligation to protect the Maori language and culture.

Defining a national identity is not a simple matter. New Zealand is a diverse nation, made up of many cultural groups, with many different customs and traditions. Many people identify their ethnicity in censuses as 'New Zealander', but how they define their 'New Zealand -ness' may vary from person to person. For example, they might see a New Zealand identity in aspects of New Zealand history, in New Zealand achievements in artistic or other endeavours, through a sense of national characteristics or traits, or through national symbols and icons. Maori culture may form one aspect of national identity, since it is unique to New Zealand and forms part of our identity in the outside world.

Cultural identity is an important contributor to people's wellbeing. Identifying with a particular culture gives people feelings of belonging and security. It also provides people with access to social networks which provide support and shared values and aspirations. These can help break down barriers and build a sense of trust between people - a phenomenon sometimes referred to as social capital - although excessively strong cultural identity can also contribute to barriers between groups. An established cultural identity has also been linked with positive outcomes in areas such as health and education.⁴⁸

Conversely, members of minority cultures can feel excluded from society if the majority of those in authority obstruct or are intolerant of their cultural practices, as happened to the Maori language and culture through much of New Zealand 's history.

Culture can also play a part in promoting social wellbeing in other ways. A strong national culture or identity, and strength in artistic endeavours, can be a source of economic strength and higher material standards of living.

Indicators

Four indicators are used. They are: participation in cultural and arts activities; the proportion of Maori language speakers; the proportion of Maori and Pacific children receiving Maori and Pacific medium education; and local content programming on television.

While they cannot provide an exhaustive picture of New Zealand 's cultural identity, they do provide snapshots of the health of particular aspects. There is a strong focus on the health of the Maori culture.

Culture is much broader than artistic endeavours. However, the arts often explore cultural identity and can contribute to it. Many people define their culture at least partly by its music, art, literature and other artistic endeavours. The first indicator, the number of people taking part in cultural and arts activities, provides a measure of this aspect of cultural life. This indicator includes information about participation in Pacific and Maori culture and arts activities, providing some indication of the value New Zealanders place on cultural diversity.

The second indicator measures the current health of the Maori language. Language is a central component of culture and a necessary skill for full participation in Maori society.

The proportion of Maori and Pacific children receiving Maori and Pacific medium education is a measure of the future health of the Maori language. It also provides some indication of the general ability of both Maori and Pacific people to pass on their cultural practices.

The final indicator, the amount of New Zealand content on television, provides one way of measuring the strength of New Zealanders' sense of national identity.

 Back to Top

Participation in cultural and arts activities

Definition: The proportion of the population aged 15 and over who had experienced one or more of the cultural activities included in the 2002 Cultural Experiences Survey. Respondents were asked to report on activities they experienced over either a 12 month period (for goods and services accessed or experienced relatively infrequently) or a four week recall period (for activities experienced on a more regular basis).

Relevance: Cultural activities are an integral part of our lives and help to define who we are as New Zealanders. People participate in cultural activities for a wide variety of reasons: for enjoyment and entertainment; for personal growth and development; as a means of expression; to learn new skills and to meet new people; and to pass on cultural traditions.

Current Level

The vast majority of New Zealanders aged 15 and over (93 percent or 2.6 million people) experienced one or more of the cultural activities included in the 2002 Cultural Experiences Survey. The most popular of the less frequent activities included in the survey (those experienced over the past year) were visiting an art gallery or museum (48 percent) and attending a popular live music performance (37 percent). The most popular activities undertaken in the previous four weeks were purchasing books (43 percent) and visiting a public library (39 percent). Lack of time and cost were the main barriers to experiencing cultural activities more often, or at all.

Figure CI1.1

Source: Statistics New Zealand 2002

Sex and Age Differences

Women (95 percent) were slightly more likely to experience one or more of the cultural activities included in the survey than men (92 percent). Activities with a much higher proportion of women than men participating included purchasing a book, visiting a library, and going to a theatrical performance. There was no difference in the proportion of men and women who had purchased music.

Younger people were more likely to experience at least one of the cultural activities included in the survey than people in the older age groups. In 2002, virtually all 15-24 year olds (98 percent) and 96 percent of 25-44 year olds took part in one or more of the surveyed activities. Participation was lowest among the 65+ age group (81 percent). Popular activities among younger people included hiring a video or DVD (53 percent) and purchasing music (49 percent). Older people (65+ years) were more likely to visit a public library than other age groups with 46 percent reporting this activity.

Ethnic Differences

Maori were more likely to have participated in at least one of the cultural activities included in the survey than the European or Pacific groups (Maori 97 percent; European 93 percent; Pacific 92 percent). Popular activities experienced by Maori included visiting a marae (69 percent) and attending a popular live music performance (40 percent). European New Zealanders were more likely to report visiting an art gallery or museum than other groups (51 percent), while Pacific people had the highest rate of participation in community-based ethnic or cultural activities (39 percent).

Table CI1.1 Proportion (%) of population aged 15+ who had participated in cultural activities by activity type and ethnic group

	Maori	Pacific people	European
In the previous 12 months
Art gallery/museum	42	27	51
Book purchase	40	29	45
Popular live music performance	40	27	39
Theatrical performance	18	19	30
Visited a marae	69	22	14
Community-based ethnic/cultural activities	20	39	14
In the previous four weeks
Visited a public library	34	31	39
Music Purchase	32	33	34
Video, DVD hire	39	26	31
Going to movies	23	21	30
Any cultural activity	97	92	93
Source: Statistics New Zealand 2002

Regional Differences

In 2002, 94 percent of people living in urban areas experienced one or more of the cultural activities included in the survey, compared to 93 percent of people living in secondary urban areas and 91 percent of those living in minor urban and rural areas. Comparing across regional council areas, Wellington had the highest proportion of people who experienced at least one of the surveyed activities (97 percent), while Taranaki had the lowest level of participation (87 percent). In part, this may reflect differences in the level of activities that are available in these areas.

 Back to Top

Maori language speakers

Definition: The number of Maori who reported in the census they could hold a conversation about everyday things in Maori, as a proportion of the Maori population.⁴⁹

Relevance: As a central component of Maori culture, Maori language is an important aspect of participation and identity. The Maori language forms part of the broader cultural identity and heritage of New Zealand and in 1987 was granted the status of an official language of New Zealand .

Current Level

The 2001 census showed that one-quarter of all Maori (25 percent or 130,482 Maori) and 28 percent of Maori aged 15 and over (or 91,809) stated they could hold a conversation in Maori about everyday things. Maori accounted for 81 percent of the total number of Maori language speakers (160,500). The 1996 census also showed that the proportion of Maori who speak te reo was around 25 percent, but because of changes in the census ethnicity measures this figure is not directly comparable with the figure for 2001.

The proportion of Maori who were fluent Maori speakers declined markedly over the last century, particularly following the rapid urbanisation of the Maori population in the 1950s and 1960s. The first national Maori language survey in 1973 estimated that the proportion of fluent speakers had fallen to 18 percent.

Information on the fluency of Maori speakers is available from the survey of the health of the Maori language, conducted in 2001. The survey showed that more people could understand Maori (59 percent of Maori aged 15 years and over, or 190,209) than speak it (42 percent, or 136,600). In terms of proficiency, while 42 percent could speak some Maori, only nine percent could speak Maori 'well' or 'very well', 11 percent could speak Maori 'fairly well', and 22 percent could speak Maori but 'not very well'. Similarly, while 59 percent of people could understand Maori, only 15 percent could understand Maori 'well' or 'very well', 18 percent could understand Maori 'fairly well', and 25 percent could understand Maori but 'not very well'.⁵⁰

Figure CI2.1

Source: Statistics New Zealand 2001 census

Ethnic Differences

The 2001 census showed that 4.5 percent of the total population could hold a conversation in Maori. After Maori, Pacific peoples had the highest proportion who could speak Maori (5.8 percent), followed by Europeans (1.7 percent) and Asians (0.8 percent).

Age and Sex Differences

Older Maori are considerably more likely than younger Maori to be able to converse about everyday things in Maori. In the 2001 census, more than half of Maori aged 65 and over (54 percent) reported having conversational fluency in the Maori language, compared with less than one quarter (22 percent) of Maori under 40.

Sex differences in the proportion of Maori language speakers were also apparent. From age 40 years onwards, males were more likely than females to be Maori language speakers, while at younger ages (below 20 years) a higher proportion of females than males could speak Maori.

Among non-Maori, the proportion of Maori language speakers was higher at the younger ages. Females were also more likely to be Maori language speakers than males.

Table CI2.1 Proportion (%) of Maori speakers in the Maori population, by age and sex, 2001

	Age group (years)
	0-4	5-14	15-19	20-29	30-39	40-49	50-59	60-64	65+	Total
Male	14.6	21.2	22.3	23.8	24.0	27.6	38.1	48.9	55.3	24.6
Female	15.1	24.4	27.7	23.6	23.5	26.1	34.5	46.5	53.5	25.7
Total	14.8	22.7	25.0	23.7	23.8	26.8	36.3	47.7	54.3	25.2
Source: Statistics New Zealand, 2001 census

Regional Differences

Maori who live in areas with a high proportion of Maori residents are the most likely to be Maori language speakers. Regions with higher than average proportions of Maori with conversational Maori skills were Gisborne (35 percent), Bay of Plenty (32 percent), Northland (30 percent), Waikato (28 percent) and Hawkes Bay (27 percent).

 Back to Top

Maori and Pacific children receiving Maori medium and Pacific medium education

Definition: The number of Maori and Pacific enrolments in language immersion early childhood education services as a proportion of all Maori and Pacific early childhood education enrolments; the number and proportion of Maori and Pacific school students receiving Maori medium or Pacific medium education in which all or some curriculum subjects are taught in their respective languages.

Relevance: Knowledge of language is an important prerequisite for participating in one's culture and maintaining cultural identity. Maori and Pacific communities have initiated language programmes to develop the language skills of their young people.

Current Level and Trends

In July 2002, there were 10,503 enrolments of Maori children in kohanga reo (Maori 'language nests') and they made up 32 percent of all Maori enrolments in early childhood education. Although Maori children's participation in early childhood education has continued to rise over time, the share of enrolments in kohanga reo has declined, while the proportion in education and care centres has increased. However, the majority of Maori children enrolled in early childhood education (over 80 percent) attend centres that provide at least some Maori medium experience. In 2002, there were a further 247 enrolments in other Maori immersion early childhood education services (with 81-100 percent of instruction in Maori), and 16,387 enrolments in bilingual services where Maori is the medium of instruction for between 12-80 percent of teacher contact time.

Figure CI3.1

Source: Ministry of Education
Note: Changes in counting methods affect the comparability of kohanga reo data before and after 1998, and Maori medium data before and after 1999. Kohanga reo figures refer to Maori enrolments in kohanga as a proportion of all Maori enrolments

The 2,749 enrolments of Pacific children in Pacific language nests in July 2002 accounted for 24 percent of all Pacific enrolments in early childhood education at that time, down from 46 percent in 1992.⁵¹ Enrolments in Pacific language nests have declined as a proportion of all Pacific enrolments, while enrolments in education and care centres have increased. In all, there were 1,382 enrolments in Pacific language immersion services in July 2002, and 1,722 enrolments in bilingual services. Samoan is the language of instruction in the majority of Pacific medium early childhood services, followed by Tongan, Cook Island Maori, and Niuean.

In 2002, 17 percent of Maori school students (25,654) were involved in Maori medium education. The number of mainstream schools offering Maori medium education increased significantly following the introduction in 1989 of targeted funding to promote the Maori language. By 1999, 19 percent of Maori students (26,852) were receiving some of their education in the Maori language, a substantial increase from 13 percent (16,051) in 1992.

Kura kaupapa Maori are schools in which Maori language, culture and values predominate and in which the principal language of instruction is Maori. The number of kura kaupapa Maori has increased from 13 in 1992 to 61 in 2002. Over the same period, the number of Maori enrolments in kura kaupapa Maori increased tenfold, from 507 in 1992 to 5,401. In 2002, an estimated four percent of all Maori students were enrolled in kura kaupapa Maori.

Table CI3.1 Number and proportion (%) of Maori students receiving Maori medium education in schools, selected years, 1992-2002

Year	Some (at least 12%) Maori medium education		More than 50% Maori medium education
1992	16,051	12.7	8,862	7.0
1996	23,222	16.8	14,398	10.4
2001	25,580	17.1	16,460	11.0
2002	25,654	17.1	16,764	11.2
Source: Ministry of Education. 2002 percentages estimated by Ministry of Social Development

A total of 1,791 Pacific school children (about three percent of all Pacific school students) were involved in Pacific medium education programmes in July 2002. This represents an increase from 1,370 enrolled in 2000. About three-quarters (77 percent) were receiving instruction in Samoan.

Regional Differences

Involvement in Maori medium education is particularly high in the Gisborne, Bay of Plenty, and Hawkes Bay regions, where almost three in 10 students are receiving some school instruction in Maori. Other regions with high levels of involvement are Northland and Manawatu/Whanganui. A similar pattern holds for kohanga reo enrolments.

 Back to Top

Local content programming on New Zealand television

Definition: The number of hours of local content screened on New Zealand television channels during prime time, as a proportion of the total prime time schedule, between 1988 and 2002. Local content is generally defined as material that is both predominantly made in New Zealand and reflective of New Zealand identity and culture.

Relevance: Television plays a dominant role in our lives. Ninety eight percent of New Zealand households have at least one television set.⁵² For many people, television is a major source of news, information and entertainment and strongly influences their sense of local and national identity. A local content measure reflects the extent to which we see our culture reflected through this medium.

Current Level and Trends

In 2002, local content on the three main television channels comprised 39.5 percent of the prime time schedule, an increase from 37.2 percent in 2000. The proportion of local content rose from 24 percent in 1988 to a peak of 42 percent in 1994, before dropping to 35 percent in 1995.

Figure CI4.1

Source: New Zealand on Air
Note: These figures are for local content on TV One, TV2, and TV3 only

Since 1988, other free-to-air broadcasters (including TV4, MTV and a number of regional channels) as well as pay-television channels Sky (satellite) and Saturn (cable) have joined the three national television channels.

Table CI4.1 Percentage share of local content by programme type, 1988-2002

Programme type	%
	1988	1990	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002
News, current affairs	26	23	24	26	28	30	30	33	29
Information	10	5	17	20	24	19	17	21	18
Sports	24	39	21	15	16	16	20	13	18
Entertainment	14	12	6	9	7	8	7	9	10
Childrens	15	13	15	14	10	10	10	8	8
Drama/comedy	2	1	7	6	6	6	6	6	6
Maori	6	3	4	5	4	5	6	6	5
Documentaries	2	3	5	5	5	5	4	4	5
Childrens Drama	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Total New Zealand content hours	2,112	4,249	5,066	5,601	6,296	6,143	6,185	6,190	7,201
Source: New Zealand on Air

Three programme types account for two-thirds of local content hours: news and current affairs (29 percent); information programmes (18 percent); and sports (18 percent).

International Comparison

International comparisons are difficult due to inconsistencies in measurement approaches by different countries. Available figures suggest that, while local content on New Zealand television is steadily increasing, it accounts for less than a quarter of total transmission time, compared to Canada (60 percent), Norway (56 percent), Finland (55 percent), Australia (55 percent) and Ireland (41 percent).

 Back to Top