Limitations of data: The
ability to monitor health expectancy on a regular basis depends on the
availability of information about disability and levels of disability.
This measure of health expectancy (titled
Independent Life Expectancy in previous editions of The Social Report)
has inherent limitations as a population health indicator. An indicator
that included all levels of disability - not just a single dependency
threshold - would provide a more precise measure of health (ie a
disability adjusted life expectancy). The social preferences
(disability weights) needed to construct such an indicator are still
under development in New Zealand.
Data sources: Ministry of Health,
revised data.
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H2 Life expectancy
Definition/formulae: The
expected number of years a hypothetical newborn male or female would
live if they were subject throughout their lives to the age-specific
mortality patterns prevailing over a three-year period centred on their
birth year.
Note: Ethnic-specific estimates for the period
1980-82 to 1995-97 have been adjusted for undercounting in the ethnic
mortality statistics using census ethnic definitions and were revised
after the official release of the 2000-02 complete Life Tables in March
2004. The figures differ from those published by Statistics New
Zealand for the same period and are not comparable with earlier
estimates.
The analysis associating life expectancy with
levels of deprivation is based on NZDep96, a small area index of
deprivation based on a principal component analysis of nine
socio-economic variables from the 1996 census. The index has been
converted to a scale ranging from 1 to 10, where 1 represents the least
deprived 10 percent of small areas, and 10 represents the most deprived
10 percent. The small areas are about the size of a census meshblock
and have populations of at least 100 people.
Limitations of data: Available
annually from abridged life tables for the total population only.
Official Māori/non-Māori data is only available five-yearly from
complete life tables based on three-year period around census years.
Data sources: Statistics New
Zealand (2004) New Zealand Life Tables: 2000-2002,
Table 1; Ministry of Health (ethnic-specific data for 1985-87,
1990-92); Tobias and Cheung (2003) Monitoring Health Inequalities:
Life Expectancy and Small Area Deprivation in New Zealand, Table
3; OECD (2003c) OECD Health Data 2003, Table 1; Ministry of Health
(1999) Our Health, Our Future: Hauora Pakari, Koiora Roa, The
Health of New Zealanders 1999, Chapter 2.
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H3 Disability requiring assistance
Definition/formulae: The
age-standardised disability requiring assistance prevalence rate per
100 population. Disability requiring assistance includes those with a
functional and/or role limitation who require assistance from another
person or from a complex assistive device over a period of at least six
months. Those needing assistance intermittently are defined here as
having a 'moderate' disability requiring assistance; those requiring
continuous or daily assistance are defined as having a 'severe'
disability requiring assistance. These definitions correspond to
disability Levels 2 and 3 used by the Ministry of Health (1999).
The disability requiring assistance prevalence
rate is age-standardised to the WHO world population, based on observed
(not smoothed) age specific rates.
Limitations of data: Data is
based on a sample survey and is therefore subject to sampling error.
Rates of severe disability for Māori are based on small numbers and
should be used with caution.
Data sources: Ministry of Health,
unpublished data from the New Zealand Disability Surveys, 1996,
1997 and the 2001 New Zealand Disability Survey.
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H4 Suicide
Definition/formulae: The
age-standardised rate of suicide deaths per 100,000 population.
Age-standardised to Segi's world population.
Note: The figures for 2000 and 2001 are
provisional and may be revised.
Limitations of data: Because
suicide is a relatively rare event in statistical terms, rates of
suicide can vary markedly from year to year. Any interpretation of
trends requires an examination of rates over several years. Deaths by
suicide are subject to a coroner's inquiry and can only be officially
deemed suicide once an inquest is complete. This means there can be a
considerable delay in publication of the final statistics.
Data on the rates of suicide for geographical
regions and cities may be of little value for reporting comparisons
because of the low numbers, and hence highly variable suicide rates.
For example, where populations are small, the rate of suicide can be
greatly inflated by one or two deaths.
Data on attempted suicide is only available for
those admitted to hospital as inpatients or day patients for
self-inflicted injury. Those cared for in hospital but not admitted and
those cared for by primary or community care services are not reported.
Therefore, the actual rate of attempted suicide is likely to be much
higher than reported in official statistics.
Comparability over time is affected by a change
in population concept in 1991 (from de facto to resident), and the
change in the ethnicity classification in 1995. Ethnic-specific
mortality data is also subject to some uncertainty due to differences
in collection across different providers.
A comparison of international trends in suicide
is problematic due to differences in the methods used to classify
suicide.
Data sources: Ministry of Health,
New Zealand Health Information Service (unpublished tables);
Ministry of Health (2004) Suicide Facts: Provisional 2001
Statistics (all ages); Beautrais (2000) Restricting Access to
Means of Suicide in New Zealand : A Report Prepared for the
Ministry of Health on Methods of Suicide in New Zealand. World
Health Organisation [16 June 2004].
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H5 Prevalence of cigarette smoking
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of the population aged 15 and over who ever smoke any
ready-made cigarettes or roll-your-own tobacco cigarettes. Information
on smoking prevalence was collected from quarterly surveys conducted by
AC Nielson Ltd and reported by the Ministry of Health.
Ethnic rates are age-standardised using the WHO
world population.
Limitations of data: The
international comparison is affected by differences in the collection
and classification of the data. The classification of ethnicity
information changed from 1997 onwards. Therefore, ethnic-specific data
before and after 1997 may not be comparable.
Data sources: Ministry of Health
(2003b) Tobacco Facts 2003; Ministry of Health, OECD
(2003c) OECD Health Data 2003, Frequently asked data, Table 19: Tobacco
consumption: % of population who are daily smokers. Retrieved 11
May 2004.
[16 June 2004].
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H6 Obesity
Definition/formulae: Obesity is
defined as the accumulation of excess body fat to the extent that
health is adversely affected (WHO 2000). It is measured using Body Mass
Index (BMI) which is calculated by dividing weight (in kilograms) by
height (in metres) squared. Adults with a BMI greater than 30 kg/m2 are
classified as obese. In the 1997 National Nutrition Survey, the cut off
for Māori and Pacific people was set slightly higher, at 32 kg/m2. For
children, the measure is the proportion of 5-14-year-olds whose Body
Mass Index (weight/height2) met the international definition of obesity
established by Cole, et al (2000) in the 2002 National Children's
Nutrition Survey. The definition adapts the widely used cut-off point
for adults (30kg/m2) to produce age and sex specific cut-offs for
children and youth aged 2-18 years.
Information on obesity is based on the 1997
National Nutrition survey, the 2002 National Children's Nutrition
Survey and the 1989-90 Life in New Zealand (LINZ) Study.
Limitations of data: The cut
off level is arbitrary and does not necessarily correspond to levels of
health risk. There is some debate about whether a separate cut off for
Māori and Pacific people is warranted. 1989-90 data for Māori should be
viewed with caution as the number of Māori in the survey was small.
Data sources: Ministry of Health
(2002a) An Indication of New Zealanders' Health; Ministry of
Health (1999d) NZ Food: NZ People; OECD (2004a) Health at a
Glance: OECD Indicators 2003, Chart 8. Retrieved 14 May 2004 from http://www.oecd.org/searchResult/0,2665,en_2649_201185_1_1_1_1_1,00.html;
Ministry of Health (2003c) NZ Food, NZ Children: Key results of
the 2002 National Children's Nutrition Survey; Ministry of Health,
obesity data from the 1989-90 Life in New Zealand (LINZ) Study and
the 1997 National Nutrition Survey. Russell, D and Wilson, N (1991)
Life in New Zealand, Volume 1, Executive Overview, Table V.1, pp118-119.
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Knowledge and Skills
K1 Participation in early childhood education
Definition: The number of
children aged three and four years enrolled in early childhood
education programmes as a proportion of the estimated population aged
three and four years. Early childhood education (ECE) programmes
include: licensed ECE services (kindergartens, playcentres, education
and care services, home-based services, casual education and care (no
regular roll), correspondence school and te kōhanga
reo); and licence-exempt ECE services (early childhood development
funded playgroups, Pacific people early childhood groups, and
playcentres); and licence-exempt kohanga reo.
Limitations of data: Rates of
participation are only 'apparent' because children may be enrolled in
more than one ECE centre. The rates may therefore be inflated. The
measure does not provide information on the length of participation or
the quality of the programmes, both of which are relevant to positive
educational outcomes.
Data sources: Ministry of Education
(various years) Education Statistics of New Zealand ; Education
Statistics News Sheet, v 10, no 1, March 2001; customised tables;
OECD (2003a) Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, 2003
edition, Table C1.2.
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K2 School leavers with higher qualifications
Definition: The number of
students leaving school with Sixth Form Certificate in at least one
subject or a higher qualification, as a proportion of the total number
of school leavers during the year. Higher qualifications include: Sixth
Form Certificate in at least one subject (irrespective of grade
awarded); National Certificate Level 2 (or 12 or more credits at Level
2 or above); Higher School Certificate (or 12-39 credits at Level 3 or
above); Entrance Qualification (or 40 or more credits at Level 3 or
above); University Bursary, A or B grade (or National Certificate Level
3); University Scholarship (up to 1989).
Limitations of data: The
available data on school leavers' highest qualifications does not allow
a breakdown by the number of subjects passed or the grades achieved.
Policy changes relating to qualifications affect comparability over
time.
Data source: Ministry of Education
(various years) Education Statistics of New Zealand;
Ministry of Education website.
http://www.minedu.govt.nz/SchoolLeaverStatistics [16 June 2004].
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K3 Educational attainment of the adult population
Definition: The proportion of
adults aged 25-64 years with educational attainment of at least upper
secondary school level, defined in the International Standard
Classification of Education (ISCED 97) as Level 3 and above.
ISCED 3 includes local polytechnic certificate or
diploma, trade certificate or advanced trade certificate, University
Bursary, Scholarship, Higher School Certificate, Higher Leaving
Certificate, Sixth Form Certificate, University Entrance in one or more
subjects, School Certificate in one or more subjects, other school
qualification.
ISCED 4 includes technician's certificate, New
Zealand Certificate or diploma.
ISCED 5B includes university certificate or
diploma, teacher's certificate or diploma, nursing certificate or
diploma, other tertiary qualification.
ISCED 5A/6 includes post-graduate degree,
certificate or diploma, Bachelor's degree.
Limitations of data: There are
substantial differences in the typical duration of ISCED 3 programmes
between countries, ranging from two to five years of secondary
schooling.
Data sources: Statistics New
Zealand, Household Labour Force Survey; OECD (2002c) Education at
a Glance: OECD Indicators, 2002 edition, Tables A1.2, A2.3.
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K4 Adult literacy skills in English
Definition: Respondents in the
International Adult Literacy Survey were asked to carry out various
everyday tasks. 'Prose literacy' refers to the knowledge and skills
required to use information from texts, such as editorials, news
stories, poems and fiction; 'document literacy' refers to the knowledge
and skills required to locate and use information contained in various
formats such as job applications, payroll forms, transportation
timetables, maps, tables and graphics; and 'quantitative literacy'
refers to the knowledge and skills required to apply arithmetic
operations such as balancing a cheque book, completing an order form or
determining the amount of interest on a loan. The achievement attained
on each of the literacy domains is grouped into one of five 'skill
levels'. Level 1 represented the lowest ability range and level 5 the
highest. Level 3 is considered a suitable minimum for coping with the
demands of everyday life and work in a complex, advanced society. It
denotes roughly the skill level required for successful secondary
school completion and college entry. Like higher levels, it requires
the ability to integrate several sources of information and solve more
complex problems.
Limitations of data: The first
international adult literacy survey was conducted in 1994-95; the New
Zealand survey took place in 1996.
Data sources: Ministry of Education
(2001b) More Than Words: The New Zealand Adult Literacy
Strategy; OECD (2000c) Literacy in the Information Age: Final
Report of the Adult Literacy Survey, p137. Retrieved June 2004
from http://www1.oecd.org/publications/e-book/8100051e.pdf
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K5 Participation in tertiary education
Definition: Participation in
tertiary education is calculated by: the number of students who are
enrolled in tertiary education institutions and studying for a New
Zealand registered qualification as at 31 July each year; divided
by the population aged 15 and over. Private tertiary institutions are
included from 1997 onwards.
Te wānanga o Aotearoa is a public tertiary
institution that provides programmes with an emphasis on the
application of knowledge regarding auhuatanga Māori (Māori tradition)
according to tikanga Māori (Māori custom). A settlement of a Treaty of
Waitangi claim was reached with Te wānanga o Aotearoa in November 2001.
This settlement enabled the wānanga to expand and establish new
campuses around the country.
The Māori and non-Māori total tertiary
participation rates in this section have been age-standardised to the
estimated total resident population aged 15 and over, as at 30 June
2003.
Limitations of data: Changes in
the number of institutions, the status of institutions, and the types
of courses offered affect comparisons over time.
Data sources: Ministry of Education website,
Tertiary Statistics [16 June 2004]; Ministry of Education (2002) Participation
in Tertiary Education, August 2002; Education Statistics of
New Zealand for 2001; OECD (2003a) Education at a
Glance: OECD Indicators, 2003, Table C2.1.
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Paid Work
PW1 Unemployment
Definition: The proportion of
labour force (aged 15 and over) that is unemployed. The labour force is
the sum of those defined as employed and those defined as unemployed.
Hence the unemployment rate is defined as unemployed/(employed and
unemployed). The unemployed are defined in the Household Labour Force
Survey as those who are without a paid job (or unpaid work in a
relative's business) and who have actively sought work in four weeks
before the survey and are available to take work. 'Actively seeking'
includes any actions such as contacting an employer, asking friends and
relatives, contacting an employment agency or the Department of Work
and Income but excludes those who have only checked newspaper
advertisements. The employed are those who worked for pay or profit for
one hour or more in the week before the survey or who worked unpaid in
a relative's business or who have a job but did not work that week
because of leave, sickness or industrial disputes.
Standardised unemployment rates used for
international comparison are seasonally adjusted rates.
Limitations of data: Data is
based on a sample survey and is therefore subject to sampling error.
The definition of the unemployed excludes some people who regard
themselves as unemployed, including the 'discouraged unemployed' -
those not meeting the 'actively seeking work' criterion. This group is
classified in the 'Not in the Labour Force' category. The unemployment
rate also excludes those who have part-time employment but are seeking
to work more hours.
Data sources: OECD (2003b) OECD
Employment Outlook, 2003, Statistical Annex, Table A, p299; OECD
(2004b) Main Economic Indicators, p16: Standardised
Unemployment Rates. Retrieved 14 May from http://www.oecd.org/document/15/0,2340,en_2825_293564_1873295_1_1_1_1,00.html#SUR
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PW2 Employment
Definition: The proportion of
the population aged 15-64 that is employed for at least one hour per
week. See above for definition of the employed. The definition used
here relates to the population aged 15-64, rather than to those aged 15
and over, because otherwise results are skewed by differences in the
proportions of the sub-populations over 65, particularly when comparing
males with females and comparing different ethnic groups.
Limitations of data: As above, data is subject to
sampling error. The definition of employment includes those working one
hour or more per week, so will include some people who are likely to
regard their status as closer to unemployment than to being employed.
For example people on the unemployment benefit and searching for work
but working a few hours per week will be counted as employed.
Data sources: OECD (2003b) OECD Employment
Outlook, 2003, Statistical Annex, Table G, p325; OECD (2003b) OECD
Employment Outlook, 2003, Statistical Annex,
Table B, pp300-303.
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PW3 Earnings from wage and salary jobs
Definition/formulae: Average
hourly earnings from all wage and salary jobs for employees earning
income from wage and salary jobs as measured by the New
Zealand Income Survey, an annual supplement to the Household
Labour Force Survey.
Limitations of data: The final
dataset consists of 29,000 valid person records including 4,000 imputed
person records. Hourly earnings relate to the number of hours usually
worked and the usual income rather than the number of hours actually
worked and the actual income. Proxy interviewing may be used to collect
data on income under certain circumstances. Estimates from sample
surveys are subject to error.
Data source: Statistics New
Zealand (2003c), New Zealand Income Survey, Hot off the
Press June 1997 Table 8, June 1998 to June 2003 Table 10
Unpublished data from New Zealand Income Survey, June 2003.
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PW4 Workplace injury claims
Definition: The number of
work-related accident claims reported to the Accident Compensation
Corporation per 1,000 full-time equivalent employees (one part-time
employee = 0.5 full-time employee).
Limitations of data: The data
does not include workplace accidents where no claim was made with an
insurer. In some cases there are also delays between the occurrence of
the accident, the claim being reported to the insurer and the insurer
reporting the claim to the ACC.
Information on workplace injuries for 2001/2002
is based on a new set of indicators developed by Statistics New
Zealand. These figures have been backdated to 2000/2001 but are
not directly comparable with previous figures on workplace injuries.
Data sources: Statistics New
Zealand (2003b) Injury Statistics 2001/2002. Statistics
New Zealand : Wellington. Full-time equivalent employee data is as
estimated by the Statistics New Zealand 1986-2002 Household Labour
Force Survey.
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PW5 Satisfaction with work/life balance
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of people who are satisfied with their work/life balance
according to the Social Wellbeing Survey 2004. Responses range from
'very satisfied' through to 'very dissatisfied'.
Limitations of data: The Social
Wellbeing Survey is an experimental survey commissioned by the Ministry
of Social Development to collect information on subjective elements of
wellbeing. In particular, the relatively small sample size for the
survey (n=1127) means that there is a relatively high standard error
around population estimates for small groups. Subjective measures of
wellbeing reflect people's perceptions of their own situation which may
differ from their objective status.
Data source: Ministry of Social
Development, Social Wellbeing Survey 2004.
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Economic standard of living
EC1 Market income per person
Definition/formulae: Real GNDI
measures the real purchasing power of the net income of New
Zealand residents from both domestic and overseas sources after
taking account of income redistribution resulting from international
transfers. GNDI is GNI (previously called GNP) plus net international
transfers. Real GDP per person (as used in the OECD comparisons) is
Gross National Expenditure plus exports minus imports.
Derivation of RGNDI: In the published tables,
RGNDI is calculated as follows:
Constant price gross domestic product (production-based measure) plus
constant price trading gain/loss plus constant price total net income
and transfers. Constant price trading gain/loss is defined as current
price exports divided by the imports implicit price index less constant
price exports. Constant price total net income and transfers equals
investment income credits less investment income debits plus transfers
credits less transfers debits, all divided by the imports implicit
price index.
Limitations of data: Major
limitations to the use of RGNDI as an indicator of wellbeing include
its failure to include non-marketed (and, therefore, non-priced)
activities (barring the exception of imputed rentals). RGNDI provides
no information on income distribution considerations. Evidence suggests
monetary measures have a very weak cross-sectional and limited time
series correlation with self-assessed measures of wellbeing. Use of
real GDP for OECD comparisons is likely to over-state New Zealand's
relative position because of New Zealand's relatively high per capita
net external debt.
Data sources: Statistics New
Zealand, Real GNDI per capita, INFOS series SNBA.SRNDIPCO; OECD real
GDP data is from OECD Annual National Accounts - v 1,
Comparative Tables; Statistics New Zealand (2001c) Measuring
Unpaid Work in New Zealand 1999. Table 1, p 15.
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EC2 Income inequality
Definition/formulae: The ratio of the 80th
percentile of disposable household income to the 20th percentile of
disposable household income. This indicator is based on 'actual'
household income so does not take into account household size and
composition. For international comparison purposes we have compared
GINI co-efficients.
Limitations of Data:
International comparisons have been made with data from the mid 1990s.
Data source: Household Economic
Survey. Access to the data used in this study was provided by
Statistics New Zealand under conditions designed to give effect to
the confidentiality provisions of the Statistics Act 1975. The results
presented in this study are the work of the Ministry of Social
Policy/Ministry of Social Development. Forster M and Pearson M (2002)/1
Income Distribution and Poverty in the OECD Area: Trends and Driving
Forces OECD Economic Studies, No 34. p.38 and Statistics New
Zealand (1999) Income Distribution in New Zealand - Key
Statistics.
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EC3 Population with low incomes
Definition/formulae: The
measures have been constructed using economic family units as the base
unit of analysis. An economic family is operationally defined as:
Financially independent single adult (not in a de
jure or 'social' marriage, not caring for dependent children).
Sole-parent family - ie financially independent
single adult (not in a de jure or 'social' marriage) caring for one or
more dependent children.
Couple (in a de jure or 'social' marriage, not
caring for dependent children).
Two-parent family - ie couple (in a de jure or
'social' marriage) caring for one or more dependent children.
All young adults are considered financially independent at 18 years of
age; 16 and 17-year-olds are also considered financially independent if
receiving a benefit in their own right or employed for 30 hours or more
per week.
Conceptually, an economic family is a group of
co-resident people whose financial affairs are common or have been
merged to the extent that the people are substantially interdependent
(with an individual not part of such a group being considered to
constitute an economic family in its minimal form).
Housing costs have been apportioned to economic
family units. Account was taken of the housing costs of the economic
family unit by subtracting its housing cost from its after-tax income.
The resulting amounts were inflation adjusted using the CPI for all
groups excluding housing.
Adjustment for family size was made by means of a
per capita equivalisation process based on the 1988 Revised Jensen
Equivalence Scale. The resulting amount - Housing-adjusted Equivalised
Disposable Income (HEDY) - can be regarded as an income-based proxy
measure of standard of living. The HEDY is the metric on which the low
thresholds are specified.
Changes over the decade 1988 to 1998 have been
tracked in terms of the proportion of economic families with HEDY
values below 40 percent, 50 percent and 60 percent of the median HEDY
in 1998. This definition means that the measures are based on
constant-value benchmarks. The three measures are referred to as the 40
percent line, the 50 percent line and the 60 percent line. For the
purpose of this analysis the self-employed have been included.
Note: While technical analysis done to date
indicates that the measurement approach is well-grounded and robust,
future work may point to the use of other thresholds as more
informative for social monitoring.
The methodology used to calculate the figures
used in the international comparison section follows that used by the
OECD: the income concept is equivalised household disposable income;
the equivalence scale is the square root scale (ie equivalence scale
elasticity = 0.5); equivalent household income is attributed to all
individuals in the household; individuals are ranked by their
attributed equivalent disposable income to obtain the median for that
year; the thresholds are set at 60% of this (contemporary) median.
Limitations of data: The HEDY
metric is an imperfect indicator of living standards, which is
influenced by factors other than income and housing cost. People with
the same income level can have greatly different standards of living as
a result of their lifecycle stage (youth, middle age, older people),
ownership of assets, the extent to which they receive assistance from
others, and the extent to which they have atypical expenditure
commitments (eg unusually high medical costs, debt repayments,
transport costs, electricity costs, etc). People who experience a
lengthy period of substantial restriction are likely to have different
life outcomes to those who experience only a transient episode.
Family ethnicity is defined in this indicator by
the presence of an adult of a particular ethnic group. The figures for
families defined in this way are not mutually exclusive.
Housing costs is the sum of annualised
accommodation expenditure codes (includes mortgage payments (principal
and interest), payments to local authorities, property rent, rent of
private dwelling, boarding house, student accommodation not paid with
formal fees). In this indicator the accommodation supplement is counted
as income.
Note that the weightings used for the Household
Economic Survey were revised for all years in 2001. Some figures in
this section may therefore differ from those presented in the Social
Report 2001.
Data sources: Derived from the
Household Economic Survey by the Ministry of Social Policy/Ministry of
Social Development and OECD (2000d) Trends and Driving Factors in
Income Distribution and Poverty in the OECD Area, DEELSA/ELSA/WD p
94.
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EC4 Population with low living standards
Definition/formulae: The
Economic Living Standard Index (ELSI) is a direct measure of material
standard of living, based on information on the extent to which
respondents economise on consumption because of cost; have ownership
restrictions because of cost; have social participation restrictions
because of cost; people's own rating of their standard of living; and
people's rating of the adequacy of their incomes to meet day to day
needs. The ELSI scale has seven reporting levels: level 1 'very
restricted', level 2 'restricted', level 3 'somewhat restricted', level
4 'fairly comfortable', level 5 'comfortable', level 6 'good', level 7
'very good' living standards. Lower living standards encompass the
bottom three categories (levels 1-3) of the ELSI scale.
Limitations of data: Measures
only material wellbeing.
Data source: New
Zealand Living Standards 2000, Ministry of Social Development
(2003b), Ministry of Social Development: Wellington.
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EC5 Housing affordability
Definition/formulae: Proportion
of all households with housing cost outgoings-to-income ratio greater
than 30 percent.
Household incomes have been equivalised using the
1988 Revised Jensen Equivalence Scale.
Housing costs is the sum of annualised
accommodation expenditure codes (includes mortgage payments (principal
and interest), payments to local authorities, property rent, rent of
private dwelling, boarding house, student accommodation not paid with
formal fees). In this indicator the accommodation supplement is counted
as income.
Limitations of data: Measures
of housing affordability do not shed light on issues of housing
quality, suitability or sustainability, nor do they explain why
affordability problems may exist, or the extent to which inadequate
housing is occupied to avoid affordability problems. Furthermore,
marginally-housed families are often hidden from official statistics
and therefore not counted among those with an affordability problem.
Household ethnicity is defined in this indicator
by the presence of an adult of a particular ethnic group. The figures
for households defined in this way are not mutually exclusive.
Data source: Derived from the
Household Economic Survey by the Ministry of Social Policy.
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EC6 Household crowding
Definition/formulae: The
Canadian National Occupancy standard sets the bedroom requirements of a
household according to the following compositional criteria:
Limitations of data: There is
no contemporary official statistic or index of household crowding in
New Zealand. There are many frameworks or models used in many
countries for analysing the incidence of crowding. It is unlikely that
any single measure of crowding could adequately summarise such a
complex and multi-faceted issue as crowding.
There is no definitive evidence that crowding
leads to negative social outcomes. There are just associations between
living in crowded circumstances and negative outcomes. The mechanisms
by which these outcomes result are not clear.
The Canadian crowding index is not an objective
index of crowding. The extent to which household members will perceive
themselves as living in crowded circumstances is dependent on many
factors including social and cultural expectations. Furthermore, it
cannot be assumed that households requiring two or more additional
bedrooms (based on the Canadian index) will suffer negative social
outcomes.
The Canadian crowding index is used here as it is
both sensitive to household size and composition. The measure sets a
bedroom requirement for households based on precise criteria. It is
useful not only for ascertaining crowding levels but also to identify
the extent of bedroom under-utilisation.
Data sources: Statistics New
Zealand (1999e) New Zealand Now - Housing, pp
56-63; Ministry of Social Policy (2001) Definitions of Crowding
and the Effects of Crowding on Health: A Literature Review,
Research Series Report 1, p 4; Statistics New Zealand, unpublished data
from the 2001 census.
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Civil, political and human rights
CP1 Voter turnout
Definition/formulae: The total
number of votes cast is divided by the estimated number of people who
would have been eligible to vote (voting age population) on election
day, and expressed as a percentage. To be eligible to vote, a person
must be at least 18 years old and meet residential and certain other
criteria.
Limitations of data: The voting
age population is based on population estimates that are subject to
revision. The 1984 figure is based on the estimated de facto population
aged 18 and over, as at 30 June 1984.
Data source: Electoral
Commission (2002) The New Zealand Electoral Compendium,
3rd edition; Statistics New Zealand, estimated de facto population by
age; Department of Internal Affairs (2003) Local Authority
Election Statistics 2001; International
Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
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CP2 Representation of women in government
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of elected members of parliament and local government bodies
who are women.
Data source: Electoral Commission
(2002) The New Zealand Electoral Compendium, 3rd
edition; Department of Internal Affairs (2003) Local Authority
Election Statistics 2001; International Parliamentary Union Women
in National Parliaments, Situation as at 30 April 2004, http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm
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CP3 Perceived discrimination
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of people aged 18 and over who perceived selected groups as
being the targets of discrimination (ie subject to some discrimination
or a great deal of discrimination).
Limitations of data: Surveys on
perceived discrimination do not measure actual levels of discrimination
against groups.
The margin of error for a 50 percent figure at
the '95 percent confidence level' is 3.6 percent.
Data sources: Human Rights
Commission Omnibus Results (January 2004).
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CP4 Absence of corruption
Definition/formulae: The degree
of corruption perceived to exist within New Zealand according to
business people, academics and risk analysts. Corruption is defined as
the 'abuse of public office for private gain'. Results are taken from
Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index which ranked
133 countries in 2003, in terms of how corrupt they are perceived to
be. Scores ranged between 10 (highly clean) and 0 (highly corrupt). The
Corruption Perceptions Index is a poll of polls, produced yearly since
1995, using 17 different surveys and polls from 13 independent
institutions.
Limitations of data: The
Corruption Perceptions Index is a subjective measure and must be seen
as a snapshot of the views of key decision-makers. There is no hard,
empirical data concerning levels of corruption. The only method of
gathering comparative data is to take a subjective perspective which
builds on the experience and views of those who directly see the
effects and reality of corruption. The Index is a relative measure: New
Zealand's score depends not only on perceptions of corruption in New
Zealand, but also on perceptions of corruption in the other countries
surveyed.
Data source: Transparency International
Corruption Perceptions Index 1995-2003.
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Culture and identity
CI1 Local content programming on New
Zealand television
Definition/formulae: The hours
of local content broadcast on TV One, TV2, and TV3 in prime time,
expressed as a percentage of the total prime time schedule. TV3
commenced in November 1989. New Zealand programming includes first
runs and repeats across all three channels.
Limitations of data: The number
of local content hours broadcast on other free-to-air or pay channels
is not included in the data presented here.
Data source: New Zealand on Air (2004) Local
Content, New Zealand Television, 2003.
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CI2 Māori language speakers
Definition/formulae: Māori
language speakers as a proportion of the Māori ethnic group. Māori
language speakers are defined as those able to hold a conversation
about a lot of everyday things in Māori.
Limitations of data: The data
is reliant on self-reporting and does not measure the actual level of
fluency in the population. More detailed information on the level of
fluency among Māori language speakers is available from a nationwide
survey undertaken in 1995. This data is not directly comparable with
the census data because different definitions were used.
Data sources: Statistics New
Zealand (2002b) New Zealand Census of Population and
Dwellings: Māori; Te Puni Kkiri (2001b) Provisional results
of the 2001 Survey of the Health of the Māori Language.
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CI3 Language retention
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of people who can speak the 'first language' (excluding
English) of their ethnic group, for ethnic groups (other than Māori)
with an established resident population in New Zealand, as recorded in
the 2001 Population Census. Ability to speak a language is defined as
being able to hold an everyday conversation in that language. 'First
language' refers to an indigenous language associated with a given
ethnicity rather than the first language of an individual.
Several criteria were used to identify ethnic
groups with an established resident population in New Zealand.
These included total population size, years since the group's arrival
in New Zealand and the age distribution and birthplace (overseas
and within New Zealand ) of group members. These variables provide
a measure of the influence of time and of demographic characteristics
of the groups. Each variable was applied independently to a large list
of ethnic groups from which 15 were selected under the broad categories
of Pacific peoples, Asian and European. To be selected, a group needed
to have a New Zealand resident population of over 2,000 people; a
broad age distribution to investigate the impact of age on language
retention; and sufficient numbers born in New Zealand in order to
make meaningful comparisons with overseas-born residents.
Limitations of data: While a
direct link can usually be made between a language and an ethnic group,
this is not always the case. Some ethnicities are associated with
several languages and one language can span several ethnicities. While
English is an official language of some groups selected in these
tables, the 2001 Census does not distinguish between different
varieties of the English language. English has therefore been excluded
as a first language within these tables. Because both the ethnic group
and language spoken census variables allow more than one response,
their may be some individuals who appear in more than one ethnic group
category.
Data source: Statistics New
Zealand, 2001 Census, unpublished data (from forthcoming report on
language retention).
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Leisure and recreation
L1 Subjective satisfaction with leisure
Definition/formulae: People's
levels of subjective satisfaction with their available leisure time
according to the Social Wellbeing Survey 2004. Responses range from
'very satisfied' through to 'very dissatisfied'.
Limitations of data: The Social
Wellbeing Survey is an experimental survey commissioned by MSD to
collect information on subjective elements of wellbeing. In particular,
the relatively small sample size for the survey (n=1127) means that
there is a relatively high standard error around population estimates
for small groups. Subjective measures of wellbeing reflect people's
perceptions of their own situation which may differ from their
objective status.
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L2 Participation in sport and active leisure
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of adults (18 years and over) and young people (5-17 years)
who were physically active as defined by the Sport and Physical
Activity Surveys of 1997/98, 1998/1999 and 2000/2001.
Being 'physically active' means being either
'relatively active' or 'highly active'. Relatively active means that
the respondent took part in at least 2.5 hours, but less than 5 hours
of sport/leisure-time physical activity in the 7 days before the
interview. Highly active means that the respondent took part in 5 hours
or more of sport/leisure-time physical activity in the 7 days prior to
interview.
Limitations of data:
Information on the activity of children was collected from parents with
help from the children if they were present. This approach relied on
the parents being well informed about their children's involvement in
sport and leisure-time physical activity.
Data source: Sport and Recreation
New Zealand (2003a) SPARC Facts Series (1997-2001),
retrieved 7 April 2004 from
http://www.sparc.org.nz/research/sparcfacts-3.php
Sport and Recreation New Zealand (2003b) SPARC Trends: Trends
in Participation in Sport and Active Leisure 1997-2001, retrieved
7 April 2004 from
http://www.sparc.org.nz/research/pdfs/Trends_Report.pdf
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L3 Participation in cultural and arts activities
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of the population aged 15 and over who experienced a
cultural activity as measured in the 2002 Cultural Experiences Survey.
Respondents were asked to report on activities they experienced over
either a 12 month period (for goods and services accessed or
experienced relatively infrequently) or a four week recall period (for
activities experienced on a more regular basis). The survey was
undertaken as a supplement to the March 2002 quarter Household Labour
Force Survey (HLFS).
Limitations of data: This was
an hoc survey, and is not comparable with the indicator in The Social
Report 2001. The focus of this survey was on experience/consumption; it
did not include participation such as acting or performing.
Data sources: Statistics New
Zealand (2002a) 2002 Cultural Experiences Survey.
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Physical environment
EN1 Air quality
Definition/formulae: The level
of ambient concentrations of PM10 averaged annually are categorised for
four major urban centres in New Zealand. These levels are
compared with the government's PM10 guideline value of 20 mg/m3 (20
micrograms per cubic meter) averaged annually. PM10 is particulate
matter that is less than 10 microns in diameter.
Limitations of data: Ambient
air quality sites where data on PM10 levels are publicly available are
few in number and tend to represent urban areas where 'worst case' PM10
concentration levels are to be found. The monitoring sites are mainly
located in residential areas where air pollution problems are
anticipated or have already been confirmed. The sites do not therefore
always represent the pollution levels that will be experienced over an
entire town or city. The data, being so location-specific, cannot be
compared with an OECD median.
Data source: Ministry for the
Environment and Ministry of Health (2002) Ambient Air Quality
Guidelines - 2002 Update. Ministry for the Environment: Wellington.
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EN2 Drinking water quality
Definition/formulae: The
Drinking-water Standards for New Zealand (DWSNZ) 1995 requires
that all water leaving the treatment plant must be free of both faecal
coliform bacteria (including E. Coli) and Cryptosporidium.
Additionally, adequate monitoring and the use of a registered
laboratory are required to demonstrate full compliance with this
standard. The figures shown give the percentage of the population who
are served by community water supplies and whose water supplies comply
with the 1995 DWSNZ in respect of E. Coli and Cryptosporidium.
Limitations of data: Drinking
water rated not fully compliant may be the result of failing one of
three of the microbiological criteria, the use of a non-registered
laboratory, or inadequate monitoring, rather than being actually
contaminated. Compliance with the DWSNZ standards regarding
Cryptosporidium is measured at the treatment plant rather than at the
tap, so there is a possibility of contamination between the treatment
plant and the point of consumption.
Data source: Ministry of Health
(2002b) Annual Review of the Microbiological Quality of Drinking-water
in New Zealand (2001).
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Safety
SS1 Child abuse and neglect
Definition/formulae: The number
of children who were assessed as abused (physically, emotionally,
sexually) or neglected, following a notification to the Department of
Child, Youth and Family Services as a proportion (per 1,000) of all
children under 17 years of age.
Limitations of data: There is
currently no single measure that can adequately establish the
prevalence of child abuse in the community, or establish trends in
child abuse over time. Mortality rates capture only the most extreme
form of abuse; hospitalisation data on injuries sustained as a result
of child abuse are subject to misclassification and reflect changes in
hospital admission procedures. Notifications of child abuse and
neglect, and hence the number of children assessed as abused, can be
affected by the level of resources made available, by administrative
changes, and by changes in the likelihood of people reporting suspected
abuse.
Data sources: Ministry of Health,
New Zealand Health Information Service; Ministry of Social
Development (SWIS and CYRAS data); Statistics New Zealand, estimated
resident population, mean for the year ended 30 June.
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SS2 Criminal victimisation
Definition/formulae: The number
of individuals who have been the victims of one or more incidents of
criminal offending over the 2000 year as a proportion of the population
aged 15 and over, as measured by the 2001 National Survey of Crime
Victims. The survey includes all behaviour reported by the respondents
which falls within the legal definition of criminal offending. This is
a broader measure than that collected from police records.
Criminal victimisation prevalence rates for 1995
have been revised slightly.
Limitations of data: The survey
includes a wide range of behaviour with varying degrees of seriousness
but excludes offences such as shoplifting and tax evasion as well as
victimless crimes such as drug abuse. Many of the reported behaviours
may not be regarded as a 'crime' by the victims and they may not regard
the incident as requiring police intervention.
Differences in the method of collection and in
the questionnaire may affect the comparability of the results from the
2001 and 1996 surveys.
The 2001 survey had a response rate of 62 percent
and the 1996 survey had a response rate of 57 percent. The response
rates for Māori and Pacific peoples were much lower. The differences in
the response rates between the surveys, and the low response rates
among Māori and Pacific peoples, may have impacted on both the validity
of comparisons between the two surveys and on the reliability of the
findings of the 2001 survey, especially with respect to Māori and
Pacific peoples.
Previous studies suggest that sexual offending
and domestic abuse are substantially under-reported in criminal
victimisation surveys. The results, therefore, should be treated with
some caution.
Data sources: Morris et al (2003) New
Zealand National Survey of Crime Victims 2001. Ministry of
Justice, customised tables.
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SS3 Perceptions of safety
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of people who reported they felt unsafe walking alone in
their neighbourhood at night, as measured by the 2001 National Survey
of Crime Victims. People who said they did not walk alone at night were
asked how they thought they would feel.
Limitations of data: People's
subjective perceptions about safety are not always linked to the actual
risk of becoming a crime victim.
Data sources: Morris et al (2003) New
Zealand National Survey of Crime Victims 2001. Ministry of
Justice.
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SS4 Road casualties
Definition/formulae: Number of
deaths caused by motor vehicles per 100,000 population. Number of
injured persons resulting from motor vehicle crashes as reported to the
police, per 100,000 population. Pedestrians or cyclists killed or
injured by motor vehicles are included.
Limitations of data: The
collection of ethnicity data changed during 1995 for both mortality and
hospitalisation data. For mortality data, the basis of ethnicity has
changed from a biological concept to a concept of self-identification;
in mid-1995 hospitalisation data recorded multiple ethnic groups,
whereas previously only one ethnic group could be recorded.
Consequently, comparison of 1996 ethnic-specific data with previous
years is misleading: 1996 is the start of a new time series for
ethnic-specific data.
Data sources: Land Transport Safety
Authority; New Zealand Health Information Service; New
Zealand Travel Surveys. The Land Transport Safety Authority
derives its data from two main sources: injury data from the Traffic
Crash Reports completed by police officers who attend the fatal and
injury crashes; and mortality and hospitalisation data from the New
Zealand Health Information Service. The LTSA does not report on
ethnic-specific rates of death or hospitalisation; this data comes
directly from NZHIS. The New Zealand Travel Survey 1997/98 was
based on a sample of approximately 14,000 people and the survey report
compared results from a similar survey conducted in 1989/90. Source: International
Road Traffic and Accident Database (OECD).
http://www.bast.de/htdocs/fachthemen/irtad/english/we2.html
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Social connectedness
SC1 Telephone and Internet access in the home
Definition/formulae: The proportion of the
population with telephone and internet access in the home, as measured
by the 2000 Living Standards Surveys.
The data is derived from responses to two
Ministry of Social Policy surveys of living standards conducted in
2000, one of 3,060 older people (65+ years) and the other of 3,682
working age adults (18-64 years). Both surveys involved face-to-face
interviews with nationwide representative samples.
For further details, see notes for EC4 Population
with low living standards.
Data source: Statistics New
Zealand 2001 Census of Population and Dwellings; Ministry
of Social Development (2003) New Zealand Living Standards Surveys
2000.
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SC2 Participation in family/whanau activities and
regular contact with family/friends
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of the population who had had family or friends over for a
meal at least once a month, and the proportion who had participated in
family (whānau)
activities, as measured by the 2000 Living Standards Surveys. Family or
whānau activities were not specified in the surveys;
respondents interpreted them in their own ways.
The data is derived from responses to two
Ministry of Social Policy surveys of living standards conducted in
2000, one of 3,060 older people (65+ years) and the other of 3,682
working-age adults (18-64 years). Both surveys involved face-to-face
interviews with nationwide representative samples.
Data source: Ministry of Social
Development (2003) New Zealand Living Standards Surveys 2000.
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SC3 Trust in others
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of the population who report that people can almost always
or usually be trusted, as reported in the Social Wellbeing Survey 2004.
Responses range from those who believe that others can 'almost always
or usually be trusted', compared with people who believe that 'you
usually or almost always can't be too careful in dealing with people'.
Limitations of data: The Social
Wellbeing Survey is an experimental survey commissioned by the Ministry
of Social Development to collect information on subjective elements of
wellbeing. In particular, the relatively small sample size for the
survey (n=1127) means that there is a relatively high standard error
around population estimates for small groups. Subjective measures of
wellbeing reflect people's perceptions of their own situation which may
differ from their objective status.
Data source: Ministry of Social
Development, Social Wellbeing Survey, 2004.
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SC 4 Loneliness
Definition/formulae: The
proportion of the population who are lonely all of the time, often, or
some of the time, in the Social Wellbeing Survey 2004. Responses range
from 'never lonely' to 'always lonely'.
Limitations of data: The Social
Wellbeing Survey is an experimental survey commissioned by the Ministry
of Social Development to collect information on subjective elements of
wellbeing. In particular, the relatively small sample size for the
survey (n=1127) means that there is a relatively high standard error
around population estimates for small groups. Subjective measures of
wellbeing reflect people's perceptions of their own situation which may
differ from their objective status.
Data source: Ministry of Social
Development, Social Wellbeing Survey 2004.
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SC5 Contact between young people and their parents
Definition/formulae: The
percentage of secondary school students who reported in 2001 that most
weeks they got enough time to spend with Mum and/or Dad (or someone who
acts as Mum and/or Dad).
Limitations of data: Estimates
from sample surveys are subject to error. The achieved sample size for
the Youth2000 survey was 9,699 students, 4 percent of the total 2001
New Zealand secondary school roll.
Data source: Adolescent Health
Research Group (2003b) New Zealand Youth: A Profile of their
Health and Wellbeing. Auckland: University of Auckland. Table on
p. 46.
Adolescent Health Research Group (2003a). New Zealand Youth:
A Profile of their Health and Wellbeing: Regional reports (2003)
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